Food and Health Flashcards
1
Q
define Food security
A
all people have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life
2
Q
who collects the data on food security
A
part of the UN
- the WHO
- the FAO (food and agricultural organisation)
3
Q
how is food security calculated
A
- affordability
- availability
- quality and safety
- sustainability and adaptability
4
Q
what are subsidies
A
payment to farmers for growing food that meets the governments needs
5
Q
what is the food pattern in sub saharan africa
A
it has the worst food security rates in the world
6
Q
Nigeria (food security case study): why does it experience food insecurity
A
- scores 107th in the world
- the north of Nigeria is a desert - lack of food availability
- the north has the Islamic group (Boko Harum) - that kidnapped many school girls - conflict
- Ukraine and Russia send 14% of all Nigeria’s grain - limiting availability and increasing food costs
- corruption -> huge inequalities of wealth (has lots of oil)
7
Q
what is the food pattern in the MENA?
A
Better food security relative to sub saharan africa
8
Q
Morocco (food security case study): why does it experience food security
A
- medium food security
- vibrant tourism
- proximity to EU for trade
9
Q
Syria (food security case study): why does it experience food insecurity
A
- low food security
- conflict
- lack of availability
10
Q
UAE (food security case study): why does it experience food security
A
- high food security
11
Q
why is Bangladesh’s sustainability and adaptability poor
A
due to climate change, the Himalayas melt and flood Bangladesh, therefore their crops are not adapted to this
12
Q
how is the global hunger index calculated? what components? + brief description
A
- undernourishment -> deficiency of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals (EPVM) (refers to an entire population, both adults and children)
- child wasting -> low weight for height (looks at calorie intake, diet quality and utilisation)
- child stunting -> low height for age (is sensitive to the uneven distribution of food within a household)
- child mortality -> the mortality rate of children under 5, per 1000 of the population
13
Q
what is a criticism of “ child mortality under 5”
A
- children can die from many extraneous variables (disease, war)
14
Q
what is a bad score for the global hunger index
A
50+
15
Q
how is the global hunger index split up
A
- 1/3 -> undernourishment
- 1/6 -> child stunting and wasting
- 1/3 -> child mortality
15
Q
patters of the global hunger index: China
A
- East Asia -> China has seen rapid progress
16
Q
patterns of the global hunger index:
North Korea
A
poor hunger index -> isolation from global economy
17
Q
patterns of the global hunger index:
Sub-Saharan Africa
A
- high hunder rates -> especially central landlocked countries -> lack of access to the sea for maritime trade
18
Q
patterns of the global hunger index:
Middle East
A
- UAE -> extreme wealth and no food issues
- Yemen/ Somalia -> terrorist activities -> extreme food insecurity and hunger
19
Q
food security index: strengths (3)
A
- holistic and multidimensional approach -> Evaluates multiple dimensions of food security (affodability, accessability, quality and safety and sustainablility and adaptability)
- Global comparability -> uses a standardised method used by most countries for easy comparison of data, to ID countries in need
- Sustainability and adaptation were added later, reflecting the effects of climate change on food security
20
Q
food security index: weaknesses
A
- Data may be hard to verify and confirm in LICs and countries in conflict
- internal variation (Nigeria - North is a desert region, and has political conflict (Boko Haram). Whereas, the south has fertile and rich land) -> it doesnt show variation between food security -> it shows the country as one colour
- it updates periodically rather than continuously. Therefore, it cannot reflect sudden chnages in food data, ie. when a natural disaster occurs like a flash flood
21
Q
global hunger index: strengths
A
- emergency detection -ID countries in need
- Global comparability (not HIC) -> it is more targeted on countries in need
- influences policy for reducing hunger
22
Q
global hunger index: weaknesses
A
- collected over certain time intervals -> not continuously (therefore takes time for updates to occur)
- doesnt acount for Internal variation (Nigeria)
- measures child mortality, with the assumption that children under 5 are dying due to food insecurity, however it may be due to another cause -> i.e. malaria or conflict
23
Q
what are the 5 stages in the nutrition transition
A
- Food gathering
- Famine
- Receding famine
- Degenerative diseases
- Behavioural change
24
what is stage 1, the diet and health for the Mali case study
Stage 1: Food gathering
Diet: Wild plant and animal-based diets, with limited energy intake.
Health: High rates of malnutrition and infections.
Mali: Traditional rural communities rely heavily on locally grown food, with undernutrition being common in rural areas.
25
what is the case study for food nutrition
Mali
26
what is stage 2, the diet and health for the Mali case study
stage 2: Famine
diet: Diets heavily reliant on staple crops, with little diversity and frequent food shortages.
health: High mortality, undernutrition, stunting and wasting
Mali: Large parts of Mali experience chronic food insecurity, leading to high rates of child malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies (iron, vitamin A).
27
what is stage 3, the diet and health for the Mali case study
Stage 3: Receding famine
Diet: Increase in food availability; more diversity, but still dominated by staple foods.
Health: Lower rates of undernutrition but emerging obesity and non-communicable diseases.
Mali: Urbanisation in Mali is leading to better food access, but poverty still results in high stunting and wasting rates, particularly in children.
28
what is stage 4, the diet and health for the Mali case study
Stage 4: Degenerative diseases
Diet: High consumption of processed, calorie-dense foods, sugar, fats, and animal products.
Health: Rise in obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and other lifestyle-related conditions.
Mali: Urban Mali is seeing increasing obesity rates, especially in women, and rising cases of hypertension and diabetes.
28
what is stage 5, the diet and health for the Mali case study
Stage 5: Behavioural change
Diet: Shifts towards healthier diets, with more fruits, vegetables, and lower sugar and fat intake.
Health: Lower rates of obesity and chronic diseases, but undernutrition remains in vulnerable groups
Mali: Limited impact so far in Mali due to poverty and lack of health education, but efforts are being made to promote balanced diets through nutrition programs.
29
what is the double health burden?
This refers to the simultaneous struggle against infectious diseases (still common in many developing countries) and the rising prevalence of non-communicable diseases (which tend to become more significant as a country develops).
30
what stages of the nutrition table is the UK in?
stages 4 and 5: the U experiences a major intake of processed food, however, more people realise the importance of healthy, good-quality food
31
what is the relationship between gdp and calorie intake for developed and developing countries
developed:
Although there is an increase in GDP, there is that not that much of an increase in calorie intake. People in HICs are moving to healthier food (meat), and decreasing the amount of cereal they eat
developing:
An increase in income means a huge increase in calorie intake. This tends to be more carbohydrates, and a slow increase of meat and diary
32
what is the health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE)?
HALE is an indicator of the overall health in a population. It combines measures of both age and sex specific health and mortality data. It estimates the number of years left of life, dependent on the number of years lived in good health based on an average of a population. It is a measure of the quality of life and the quantity of life
33
What is four observations have been made about HALE?
– the burden of ill health is higher in women than in men
– The burden of ill health has a bigger impact on those in early older ages, for example, 60 and 70 years old
–sensory problems and pain are the largest components of the burden of ill health
–higher socio-economic status confers a dual advantage (life expectancy and lower levels of burden of ill health)
34
what is the burden of ill-health
the impact of a health problem on a given population, and can be measured using a variety of indicators such as mortality, morbidity or financial cost.
35
what are the 3 advantages of HALE?
- Holistic Measure of Health:
HALE provides a more comprehensive assessment of population health than life expectancy alone because it accounts for the quality of life, not just the quantity.
- Since HALE combines morbidity and mortality data, it helps governments and organisations prioritise healthcare resources toward improving both life expectancy and quality of life, making it ideal for planning public health policies.
- HALE includes both life expectancy and the burden of disease. This makes it an essential tool for international health studies and global health strategies.
36
what are the three disadvantages of HALE?
- Lack of reliable data on mortality and morbidity, especially from low-income countries.
- While HALE accounts for disease and disability, it may not fully capture other important health dimensions like mental health or social well-being. This could result in an incomplete picture of population health.
- Different countries or organisations may use varying methodologies to estimate years lived with illness or disability, leading to inconsistent HALE values. This can affect the comparability of HALE between regions or over time.
37
explain the double health burden in Mali
Firstly, Mali continues to struggle with infectious diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis. These illnesses are widespread due to factors like limited healthcare infrastructure, poor sanitation, and lack of clean drinking water, especially in rural areas. At the same time, Mali is experiencing an increase in non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancers. This rise is linked to urbanisation, changing diets, and lifestyle shifts such as less physical activity and greater tobacco use. These chronic diseases require different forms of healthcare, such as long-term management and prevention strategies.
38
what are the 4 factors associated with HALE + brief description of what they mean + global patterns of each
- maternal mortality rates (MMR): the annual number of female deaths per 1000 live births. Global patterns: Highest MMR in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia. Lowest in Australia, EU and Singapore
- Access to sanitation: The availability of sanitation in a population. Lack of access to sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa has increased since 1990. 80% of global urban pop have access to sanitation whereas global rural pop only has access to 50%
- Access to health services: Availability of health facilities and infrastructure in a population, measured by the number of people per doctor per hospital. Sub-Saharan Africa face the worst access to health services with Mozambique having 50,000 people per doctor, whilst Hungary and Iceland has 280.
- Infant mortality rate (IMR): number of deaths per children under the age of 1 per 1000 live births per year. Iceland, Japan and Singapore (2%) IMR, whilst Afghanistan and Mali (100%) IMR.
39
four limitations of assessing a nations health by ratio of doctors and people (a measure of availability)
- looks at the quantity not quality of doctors
- looks at an average and doesn’t take into account internal disparities (like in the USA you have to pay for healthcare and doctors)
- doesn’t talk about the available healthcare infrastructure and resources (i.e. lots of doctors in Gaza, but do not have proper hospitals and resources to provide a good quality treatment)
- doesn’t look at the whole scope of healthcare (mental health and access to nurses)
40
why is the infant mortality rate a valuable indicator of a country’s development (a measure of outcome)
- reflects healthcare quality and accessibility
- indicates sanitation levels
- shows nutritional status
- links to education and awareness
- reflects government prioritisation of public health
41
what is the epidemiological transition
Shift from infectious diseases (epidemics) to non-communicable (degenerative) diseases. The shift in disease patterns that reflect the changes in nutrition transition
42
what is the world food programme? what is its aim? how is it funded? recent action - case study?
- The world's largest humanitarian organization saving lives in emergencies and using food assistance to build a pathway to peace, stability and prosperity, for people recovering from conflict, disasters and the impact of climate change.
- aims:
- work to enhance nutrition in women and children
- help countries and communities prepare for and cope with climate-related shocks
- how is it funded?: funding requirement for 2025 is US$16.9 billion to reach 123 million people., entirely funded through the voluntary contributions of donor governments, institutions, corporations and individuals.
- case study: The war in Ukraine continues to displace people, damage infrastructure, disrupt supply chains and hold back the country’s economy. A total of 5 million people (15 per cent of the population) need food and livelihood assistance.
43
what is the food and agriculture organisation? what is its aim? how is it funded? recent action - case study?
- a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger.
- aim: to achieve food security for all and make sure that people have regular access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives.
- how is it funded: by its 195 member countries
- case study: the FAO science and innovation strategy (2022-2025) - using innovation to create more efficient, sustainable and resilient agri-systems for a better production of nutritious food
44
what is the world health organisation? what is its aim? how is it funded? recent action - case study?
- A United Nations agency that works to improve the health and safety of everyone around the world
- aim: Aim to help everyone achieve the highest level of health
- how is it funded?: Member states, Voluntary contributions, Philanthropic foundations
- case study: WHO certified Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, and Belixe malaria free. This highlights progress towards a malaria free future for vulnerable populations.
45
what is the Trussell trust? what is its aim? how is it funded? recent action - case study?
- Anti-poverty charity/ community of food banks in the UK. You can volunteer, fundraise, join campaigns and donate to
- aim: to end the need for food banks in the UK
- how is it funded: donations from individuals/ communities/ organisations, fundraising events and campaigns
- case study: 1.42 million emergency food parcels distributed in the past six months, including 508,000 parcels for children facing hunger in the UK
46
what is the ‘Nothing but Nets’? What is its aim? how is it funded? recent action - case study?
- Provides bed nets to prevent malaria (particularly in sub-saharan Africa). To protect people for mosquito bites, therefore malaria.
- aim: Prevent malaria, Raise awareness, Save lives
- how is it funded?: Via donations from individuals and organisations to purchase and distribute. UN has funded greatly. A $10 donation provides a one-bed net to a family in need. Also, events/sponsorships with high-profile celebrities and brands.
- case study: Participated in Global Fund's 7th replenishment conference. This helped raise funds for global health efforts e.g. malaria prevention.
47
what is the UK government food strategy?
This food strategy focuses on longer-term measures to support a resilient, healthier, and more sustainable food system that is affordable to all, therefore reducing pressures on the cost of food. It includes measures to:
- support good quality jobs around the country
- it also sets out how we will continue to support children and families on low incomes to learn and eat healthily through various initiatives such as the Healthy Start Scheme, free school meals, breakfast clubs and the Holiday Activities and Food Programme (HAF).
48
what is a transnational company
a company that operates in multiple countries and holds large amounts of revenue-generating assets
49
what are the main interests of TNCs?
to make money
50
Why might the market in the HICs have plateaued?
their market penetration has hit its max, and TNCs are now developing “designer water” and “healthy drinks” to meet the new nutritional demand
51
Why have TNCs moved to LICs and NEEs?
to sell more convenience foods, because in LICs and NEEs, incomes are rising as people move from more rural to urban areas for jobs. The TNCs have the potential to reach a greater market share in these countries as the demand for convenience food is greater
52
name 2 of the 10 companies that influence our food habits
- Nestlé
- Coca Cola
53
define agrobusiness
large-scale business cooperations or TNC that embrace the production, processing, distribution of agricultural products, and the manufacture of farm machinery, equipment and suppliers
54
what is the process of global food chains
1. global agro-business
2. TNC food manufacturers (Nestle)
3. Global fast-food franchises (KFC)
4. global retailers and supermarkets
55
what is the process of local food chains
1. local farmers
2. local food producers
3. TNC/ local franchises or to local retailers
56
what is a global value chain?
focuses on the role of “lead firms” in global industries and how they interact with local-level companies
57
what are the 5P’s?
- Price
- Packaging
- Product
- Promotion
- Public relations
58
how does McDonald's use the 5Ps to change food consumption
- £450 million on advertising - i.e. for happy meals
- toys for children to have more happy meals
- pay with Love campaign, during super bowl -commercials -> kept users attached to their phones, increasing their followers who want to be apart of this campaign, and khave more followers for new campaigns later
- user creating content for McDonald’s campaign, increasing social media attention on the campaign
- their logo - logo being built into generations, so many people can recognise and identify the brand
- use their logo for billboards to direct consumers to the nearest McDonalds with minimal writing, simply using their logo
59
what factors influence the diffusion of agricultural innovation?
- financial security
- physical proximity to others
- psychological makeup of the adopter
60
define disease diffusion and explain the ‘frictional effect of distance’
disease diffusion refers to the spread of disease into new locations. The frictional effect of distance suggests that areas closer to the source are. ore likely to be affected by it
61
what are the five main patterns of disease diffusion
- expansion diffusion (when a disease spreads into new areas)
- relocation diffusion (a person carries a disease to a new area)
- contagious diffusion (the spread of a disease through the direct contact of individuals)
- hierarchal diffusion (when a disease spreads through an ordered sequence, like from cities to large urban areas to rural areas)
- network diffusion (when a disease spreads via transport networks)
62
how does the Zika virus illustrate relocation diffusion
- the Zika virus is a mosquito-airborne disease that can also be transmitted through sexual contact.
- it illustrates relocation diffusion because a person carries the disease into a new area
63
describe the shape of the diffusion curve and what is represents
it starts with a steep slope before plateauing, represented by a thick black line. A dotted line joins both ends of the graph with and almost straight line. The solid black line are for large farmers, and the dashed line are small farmers. The area between both the lines represents the rich-poor gap
64
how does the adoption of agricultural innovation vary between large and small farmers
large farmers: rapid adoption -> larger farmers have more land used as security to buy seeds, irrigation pumps, fertilisers, pesticides, etc
small farmers: slow adoption -> less security
65
what role do government backed agricultural projects play in the adoption of innovations by smaller farmers
providing financial support, technical assistance, and infrastructure development, which can help overcome barriers to innovation and enable farmers to access and implement new technologies and practices
66
how might diffusion of agricultural technologies contribute to inequality over time
larger farmers may be able to produce a higher yield from new agricultural innovations, giving them more income
67
how do physical and political boundaries act as barriers to the diffusion of diseases
some physical features act as a barrier to diffusion, like mountains and water bodies, while political boundaries and economic boundaries may also limit the spread of disease i.e. national borders and control measures (quarantine)
68
when did the Zika virus arrive in Brazil, and has it spread to other regions
arrived in brazil in may 2014, and has spread to 21 other countries in the americas
69
what challenges does the limited flight range of the mosquito present to the diffusion of the Zika virus
can only travel 400m, but people are transporting the virus by travelling to and from areas with the disease (disease relocation)
70
which countries have the highest reported cases of Zika virus transmission
US, Argentina
71
what strategies could be employed to reduce the diffusion of diseases like Zika in urban areas
quarantine zones, stop flights abroad, air-conditioning, screened windows, and mosquito control
72
How could inequalities in the adoption of agricultural technologies be addressed to ensure fairer distribution of benefits
- education and training
- policy interventions
- micro loans and grants
73
what is malaria and how is it transmitted
a vector-borne disease caused by the plasmodium parasite and transmitted to people via the bite of the female mosquito
73
what is the global impact of malaria in terms of cases and death rates between 2000 and 2015
- in 2015, 95 countries were affected by malaria
- almost half the world’s population is at risk of malaria
- between 2000 and 2015, the number of new cases fell by 37% globally and the malaria death rate fell by 60%
74
describe the environmental conditions that favour the spread of malaria
- thrives in the humid tropics, where a minimum temperature of 20º allows it to complete its lifestyle
- the mosquito’s ideal environment is stagnant water
75
how do natural disasters and human conflicts contribute to the spread of malaria
- the diseases is often triggered by cyclones, flooding or by human conflict and war, which often results in refugees
- the refugees may be forced to live in temporary camps with inadequate drainage, which are ideal breeding grounds for mosquito
76
what are the economic impacts of malaria on households and health services
- global financing for malaria control increased from $900 million to $2.5 billion in 2014
- the direct cost of malaria to households includes: medication, doctors fees and preventative measures such as bed nets.
- infected individuals are unable to work, which can reduce family incomes during the attacks
- huge strain on healthcare services
77
who are some population groups at higher risk of contracting malaria
- infants
- pregnant women
- patients with HIV/AIDS
- non-immune migrants
- mobile populations
- travellers
78
what is cholera and what bacterium causes it
an infection that is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. It is a water-borne disease, although it can also be transmitted by contaminated food
79
what condition are required for a cholera outbreak to occur
- a significant decline in water sanitation leading to contamination of the bacterium
80
describe the cycle of vibrio cholerae transmission
1. vibrio cholerae in stream
2. water abstracted for domestic use
3. contaminated water used for washing hands
4. infection of the small intestine
5. cholera symptoms
6. vibrio cholerae in faeces
7. open-air defection or leaking sewers
81
what are the primary symptoms of cholera, and how severe can the disease become
- causes mild gastroenteritis (diarrhoea)
- however, about 5% of infected people develop severe dehydration, which can kill within hours
82
how many deaths are caused by cholera annually
- There are 28,000-142,000 deaths from cholera each year
83
what factors increase the ease of Vibrio Cholerae transmission in certain areas
- poor sanitation
- particularly affects displaced populations living in overcrowded camps
- children under 5
84
why are displaced populations and children under 5 especially vulnerable to cholera
displaced population:
-> Live in overcrowded areas, where access to clean water and sanitation facilities are limited
children under 5:
-> weaker immune systems
-> more affected by dehydration
85
how can improved sanitation and hygiene reduce the spread of cholera
- reduce the number of pathways through which cholera bacteria can enter the body, by installing uncontaminated drinking water sources
- promoted good hygiene and handwashing techniques, reduces the likelihood of ingesting cholera bacteria
86
what is a systems-based approach?
when you look at a system's input, processes and outputs to see how energy is transferred between the different layers of the system
87
define subsistence
products consumed by its cultivators
88
define commercial
when products are produced to be sold
89
what is intensive farming?
Farming that has high inputs and yields
e.g. pig farming in Denmark
90
what is extensive farming?
Farming that has low input per unit area
e.g. free-range chicken
91
define nomadic
constantly moving around
92
what is intensive subsistence farming
the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour -> high inputs to give high yield
e.g. Shifting cultivation by Popoluca Indians, Mexico
93
in what way is intensive subsistence farming (using the example of the popoluca Indians in Mexico) sustainable?
-> use of less land (3-4 ha)
-> Process of crop rotation (good soil quality)
-> does not constantly over-exploit the soil - constantly move
-> They burn the trees but allow them to regrow
-> reusing seed outputs in their inputs (e.g. maise seeds)
-> 250 crops -> The large range of crops used suggests sustainability because biodiversity can be maintained
-> low carbon emissions: low use of machinery or heavy equipment
94
3 limitations of the intensive subsistence farming (using the example of the popoluca Indians in Mexico)
-> if the population grows greatly, this method cannot support
-> if indigenous knowledge is lost
-> if the area becomes urbanised
95
evaluate the sustainability of intensive commercial pig farming in Denmark
-> high amounts of carbon emissions from from machinery and pesticides (which when burned release C02)
-> use a greater amount of land (10-30 Hectares that is exploited all year round)
-> 75% of the bacon is exported (high food miles = high carbon foot print)
95
what is the case study for a systems-based approach showing intensive subsistence farming
Shifting cultivation by Popoluca Indians, Mexico
96
what is the case study for a systems-based approach showing intensive commercial farming
Pig farming in Denmark
96
what are the different gender roles in food production and agriculture
- LIC -> Men and women play different roles in guaranteeing food security in their households and communities
- men grow mainly field crops
- women are responsible preparing most of the food and rearing small livestock -> providing protein
- rural women carry out most food processing and can provide marketable products
96
how do we close the gap between men and women in agriculture
equal access to:
- education
- technology
- land
- water
- seeds
- legal rights/banking
- training
97
how are women presenting in global food production
- women globally make up half the agricultural workforce
- 80% of all farmers in sub-Saharan Africa
- routinely denied access to banks and finance
97
what will happen to food crops if we close the gap between men and women
- food supply will increase by 20-30%
- will bring 150 million people out of hunger
- increase in rural life expectancies
- increased training of women in hygiene and sanitation can bring an immediate improvement in house hold health
97
what are the 4 factors that can negatively affect womens roles in food production
- access to land and land ownership for women is minimal in most parts of the developing world
- Diseases such as AIDS/HIV in the family mean that women have to take on a greater caretaking role and, therefore will have limited energy to grow and prepare food
- access to most financial services, such as credit, is only available to men
- women are often denied the opportunity to sell their produce at a market and engage in the cash economy
97
What is the 'double burden' faced by female carers?
the challenges a mother faces when balancing employment and domestic responsibilities (including household chores and caregiving)
97
What are some domestic roles that female carers typically have?
Domestic roles include:
* Bearing and caring for children
* Caring for elderly dependents
* Day-to-day maintenance of the household
98
In which areas has gender equality progressed at a faster pace?
Gender equality has progressed faster outside the domestic sphere than within it.
99
Who are the prime carers of children in developing countries?
Women are the prime carers of children in developing countries.
100
Does having fewer children reduce women's caring role?
No, having fewer children does not necessarily reduce women's caring role.
101
What has happened to women's roles in society concerning caring responsibilities?
Women's roles have expanded rather than changed.
102
What demographic change is characterized by an increase in the elderly population?
The growth of an ageing population.
103
In which type of countries do most elderly people live in terms of income classification?
Most elderly people live in low-income countries (LICs).
104
How is the ageing population trend different in LICs and NICs compared to HICs?
The pace of ageing is much more rapid in LICs and NICs than in HICs.
105
What type of support do households in LICs and NICs provide for aged dependents?
Households provide the bulk of financial, physical, and emotional support for aged dependents.
106
Which demographic groups are most affected by the burden of care for elderly dependents?
The burden of care falls disproportionately on women, particularly wives and daughters-in-law.
107
Fill in the blank: Despite an increase in workforce participation, many women continue to face a _______ of paid and unpaid work.
double burden
108
True or False: The majority of the elderly population is found in high-income countries (HICs).
true
109
Who are the primary caregivers in the USA?
Female caregivers
## Footnote
An estimated percentage of caregivers are female.
110
What percentage of working women reduced their work hours due to caregiving responsibilities?
33 percent
## Footnote
This highlights the impact of caregiving on employment.
111
What are some common career sacrifices made by women caregivers?
* Passed up a job promotion, training or assignment
* Took a leave of absence
* Switched from full-time to part-time employment
* Quit their jobs
* Retired early
## Footnote
These sacrifices demonstrate the conflict between work and caregiving.
112
What is the average time women spend out of the workforce due to caregiving?
12 years
## Footnote
This includes raising children and caring for older relatives or friends.
113
How does caregiving impact women's pensions compared to men's?
Women receive about half the amount that men receive
## Footnote
This reflects the financial toll of caregiving.
114
What are some mental health challenges common among women caregivers?
* Higher levels of depression
* Anxiety
* Other mental health challenges
## Footnote
These issues are prevalent due to the demands of caregiving.
115
What financial value do caregivers provide in the USA?
$148 billion to $18 billion
## Footnote
This range reflects the economic contribution of caregivers.
116
Fill in the blank: The toll that caregiving takes is not just financial; it also includes higher levels of _______.
depression
## Footnote
Mental health challenges are a significant concern for caregivers.
117
True or False: Women caregivers are more likely to outlive their spouses.
True
## Footnote
This demographic trend affects their caregiving responsibilities.
118
What is the impact of family dynamics on caregiving responsibilities?
Responsibilities may be shared or diminished
## Footnote
Family support can influence caregiving roles.
119
what are the factors that affect the severity of famine
- poor governance (populations are not protected and the risk of food scarcity increases)
- unemployment/entitlement to food (people who cannot pay for food/ do not have the means to grow it)
- migration may increase famine risk
- civil unrest (disprupts food production, decreases young workers)
120
what is the case study for famine
Ethiopia
121
what has caused the ongoing famines in Ethiopia (3)
- failure of the expected seasonal rains that usually fall between june and September in 2015
- an el nino, resulted in 90% reduction of food systems
- poor governance and state neglect
122
what are the solutions to poor famine in Ethiopia (3)
- Early warning systems alert the governments when famine threatens, allowing the government to respind much quicker to famine threats than older famine crises in 1983-5
- government had established a social security net to mitigate against poor harvests, so poorer farmers can access funds for public works such as digging water holes
- the ethiopian government has pledged $192 million for emergency food and other assisstance
123
what are the key factors driving the famine in ethiopia (3)
- the selling off of land to international corporations for industrial farming - "land grabs" to TNCs
- much of the food relief is channelled towards the military
- there are a large number of refugees from Somalia, Sudan and Eritrea that are in Ethiopia, placing a large burden on water and land resource
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what are the results of the famines in Ethiopia (5)
- 400,000 children are severly malnourished
- 10.2 million people were in need of $1.4 billion in aid
- less than 50% of the "security net" initiative has been met
- less media coverage in Ethiopia, but rather more in Syria
- substantial livestock losses in the Afar region
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how are international organisation helping with the famine in Ethiopia (3)
- World food programme => creating a school meals programme and a vulnerability mapping unit
- Save the children has mobilised $100 million
- FAO announced a $50 million plan to assist agriculture and live-stock dependent households
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what are the possible short-term solutions to food insecurity (4)
- export bans - reduce goods leaving the country, therefore increasing availability and reducing costs
- Improved Storage and Handling:
Invest in better storage facilities and handling practices to reduce post-harvest losses.
- food aid: world food programme reaches 80 million of the most desperate people, mostly refugees from conflicts or natural dusasters
- seeds and fertiliser: the rural poor urgently need help planting next seasons crops to end food crises, therefore are in need for more seeds and fertilisers
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what are the possible medium-term solutions to food insecurity (4)
- improving agricultural technology
- promoting sustainable farming practices
- strengthening infrastructure
- addressing economic factors that impact food affordability
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what are the possible long term solutions to food insecurity
- increase irrigation and productivity to get products to markets
- GM crops: main research on GM crops is focussed in HIC, and the knowledge is shared to LICs
- education for NEEs, like China and India, to ensure they do not "eat like the west" (that eats more meat). Because the world cannot feed its population if everyone eats meat
129
how has Bangladesh made significant improvements in food security?
using rice paddy fields:
- providing a reliable and abundant source of a staple food for a large global population
- rice being a global staple food means it is an easy export to other nations
- improved transport infrastructure
- investment in storage facilities for rice and cold-storage for meat, fish, eggs and potatoes
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define food waste
the disposal of food that is still edible or could have been used for other purposes, such as animal feed or compost
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what is the cause of food waste
- consumerism
- excess wealth
- mass marketing
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how much food is thrown away in the UK per year
1/3 of food
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how can food waste be addressed? (3)
- Educate customers: Provide information on date labels, storage, and safe food handling
- supporting recovery programs: surplus food can be donated to food banks, shelters and othe rorganisations that serve people in need
- Accept less-than-perfect produce: Reduce the pressure to demand perfect-looking produce. (wonky fruit and veg)
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what are the factors affecting food consumption
- income
- level of education
- diet
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what is the case study for food consumption in LIC
Cape town, south Africa
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what is the trend of consumption from rural to urban areas in Cape town, south africa
Consumption of traditional food is largely associated with poverty and, consequently, as people move to the city, they favour a typical westernized diet with a high fat and low carbohydrate content. This leads to an increase in levels of obesity and type II diabetes.
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what are the 2 social factors that affect food consumption?
gender and age
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what are womens perceptions to food and how are they varied to men, of dfferent ages
| Cape town, south africa case study
- women’s perceptions about food were centred on satisfying the family’s needs. Women see themselves as food providers, so, even when food is scarce, they feel responsible for making sure that all family members have something to eat.
- Some of the young women seemed to be conscious about body weight and therefore very selective about food, whereas many of the younger men felt that they could eat without restriction.
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what does food symbolise in south africa
| look at meat, its socio-econic status and how food is viewed generally
The daily consumption of meat is associated with high socio-economic status. Food is used for celebrations, rituals and for welcoming guests. Food is also used during social occasions when people get together and meet socially. Fatty meat is a sign of generosity; lean meat and black tea are often eaten during mourning periods.
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what is the HIC case study for food consumption?
Middle East
141
what are the sociocultural factors that have influenced food consumption?
- religion
- beliefs
- gender
- education
- employment
- migration patterns
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what has caused an increase in food consumption in the middle east?
a result of an increase in income of oil reserves
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How does the food industry benefit from obesity trends?
The continued demand for unhealthy foods creates a $60 billion market in the US.
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How does the food industry resist regulations?
Similar to the tobacco and alcohol industries, they oppose restrictions that would reduce sales.
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How does poor nutrition affect children apart from obesity?
It can also cause stunting, which coexists with obesity even in high-income countries like the UK.
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How does household income relate to children’s health?
Poorer children tend to be fatter and shorter compared to children from affluent families.
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Why do people tend to eat unhealthy foods?
- people tend to have a greater preference for sweetened foods
- people are more susceptibe to the influence of marketing techniques
- Convenience & cost of unhealthy foods
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What solutions are proposed to break the cycle of unhealthy eating?
Smart food policies introduced by governments, to promote healthier food systems.
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what is the food availability deficit
occurs when an area, country, or region does not have enough food, or enough nutritious food, to meet the needs of its population
150
what is the food entitlement deficit
refers to the situation where individuals or groups are unable to obtain the food they need to survive, despite the availability of food in the region
151
advantages of gm crops
- has helped to increase yields that protect crops against pests and weeds
- it involves adding traits to plants to make them more nutritious and more vitamin-rich, such as vitamin A in golden rice
- reduced need for pesticides and fertilisers.This can lead to fewer environmental impacts and potentially lower health risks for those handling pesticides.
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what is a disadvantage of GM crops
- increasing herbicide-resistant plants may lead to the decline of some species, i.e. the monarch butterfly
- many people hold very negative views against GM crops and its production relies on peoples growing perceptions of it
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what is vertical farming
- the growth of food on vertical shelves indoors were optimal conditions are regulated
- they regulate temperature, soil nutrients, water intake...
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what is a benefit of vertical farming
| name 4
- can make food supplies secure, becuase production can continue even in harsh weather conditions and our chaning climate
- it needs no herbicides/pesticides because it is produced inside
- they recycle water and use 98% less water than traditional farming
- less land is used therefore doesnt exploit areas with scarce land
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what is a disadvantage of vertical farming
- high electricty bills
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what is in vitro meat
- a meat product that has never been part of a living animal
- known as cultured or synthetic meat -> grows the meat in a lab
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what are the advantages of in vitro meat
- can deliver up to 50,000 tonnes of meat from 10 muscle cells
- as fewer environmental impacts than normlly slaughtered beef
- 10 to 20 hecatres of land can be coverted back form agricultural land to normal land, for every hectare used for in vitro meat manufacturing
- only generated 4% of gas emissions
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what are the disadvantages of in vitro meat
- not widely accepted
- first lab-grown meat cost €250,000 to make
- takes £7,000 to make 1 pound of meat, so very expensive
- hard to scale and justify costs
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what is bug eating
eating bugs and insects as an alternative to meat
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how is bug eating beneficial
provides an alternative protein source that is highly nutritional, and eaten in many Asian and African countries
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what are the disadvantages of bug eating
- not widely accepted by many western countries, as they are considered ‘gross’ to eat
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what is preventative treatment
measures taken to prevent the disease from occurring, i.e. polio vaccines in Ghana
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what is curative treatment
treating symptoms of the disease after an infection has occurred, i.e. training doctors and nurses to help cure diseases with sufficient resources
164
what treatment system to most countries rely on?
curative treatment
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what is primary health care treatment
it combines both preventative and curative health care
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advantages of preventative care (3)
- encourages healthy habits (healthy foods, regular exercise)
- cheaper in the long run than curative health care
- disease is contained before it spreads to other community members
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a disadvantage of preventative care (1)
- need to maintain this healthy lifestyle
168
disadvantages of curative care (3)
- expensive to treat diseases once a person is affected
- requires huge labour costs -> hiring nurses and medical personnel
- lowers productivity as infected workers may have to be absent from work for a long time
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advantages of curative care
- can help a lot of people get better with certain diseases
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what is social marginalisation? and how might this affect countries?
-> When a person or groups of people are less able to do things or access basic services or opportunities
- poor communities -> People tend to suffer from diseases which to a large extent are preventative, however preventative treatment is not available in the area
- LICs should focus on preventative healthcare as most diseases are communicable
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what is the means of infection -> how important are they
- the way people get infections
- crucial for understanding and preventing the spread of diseases. i.e. potable drinking water to rural/LIC communities to help prevent the outbreak of cholera
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what is ebola
caused by an infection with 1 or more groups of viruses (ebolaviruses) - found primarily in sub-Saharan Africa
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how does one get ebola
contact with an infected animal (bat or nonhuman primate) or a sick or a dead person infected with an ebolavirus -> it is a rare disease though
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name 3 countries were ebola is located
The DRC
Gabon
Congo
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name 3 symptoms of ebola
- vomiting
- fever
- diarrhoea
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how does ebola spread and attack the host
- spreads by bodily fluids
- attacks the internal organs
- highly infectious
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how are patients treated with ebola
- put into isolation in a transparent bio-secure tent
- patients are given fluids to prevent dehydration
- no known cure
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what are the effects of ebola
- kills 9 out 10 people affected
- currently killed 500 people in west africa
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how and why are people stigmatised if they have ebola
- people find it difficult to reintegrate after being in quarantine
- people fear viruses can spread beyond borders, therefore borders between neighbouring affected countries (i.e. Liberia), have been shut down
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what is the correlation of mortality between malaria and ebola
- malaria has a mortality rate of 16.1%, whereas ebola has a mortality rate of 64.3%, even if patients go to a treatment unit
181
why do sufferers of ebola not go to a hospital
the symptoms of malaria and ebola are very similar; however, going to a hospital unit has a 5% increase in mortality rate than staying at home. People would rather die at home with their family than in a hospital queue waiting for treatment of a diseases that has no known cure
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what is being done to combat ebola in the DRC
- the world bank is financing more than 50% of the Ebola response and is seeking to strengthen the healthcare system
- setting up healthcare spots to help treat patients
- slowly making healthcare free to urge more people to come in for treatment
- creating children camps to care for children whose parents or carers have been killed by ebola
183
what is the case study for ebola? when did it happen? when did the number of cases peak? when was the epidemic declared over?
West Africa
- first cases recorded in Guinea (December 2013)
- number of cases peaked (2014)
- epidemic declared over, 42 days after last case tested negative (June 2016)
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why 4 factors influenced the spread of the ebola outbreak?
- extreme poverty
- dysfunctional healthcare systems
- distrust of the government over years or armed conflict
- the delay in a response to the epidemic
185
what is a vector-borne diseases
disease spread by an animal (i.e. mosquitos)
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what are the effects of the zika virus
- birth defects in children: babies are born with small heads and brain damage
- neurological problems in adults
187
what is the mortality rate for malaria in 2022/2023
- 2022 -> 14.9 deaths per 1000
- 2023 -> 13.7 deaths per 1000
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how can local radio stations help (4) and hinder the spread of information about the Ebola virus (1)
help:
- helps transmit accurate emergency messages to scarce areas
- no battery needed for wind-up radios
- used for all disease warnings, not just ebola, such as measles
- uses actors/audiences to act out the ebola crises and have Q and A from the community -> easily accessible for people to grasp the information being shared
hinder:
- making sure that the messages are actually accurate and sent from qualified people
189
how can raising awareness of ebola create a possibility to control is impact
- it will reduce the stigma and people are more aware about it, allowing people to get the right treatment and limit the spread
190
what is suggested that needs to be done to help treat future epidemics quickly by international communities (4)
- preparedness -> heaving epidemic personnel ready to go when an epidemic starts
- need strong health systems in poorer countries
- simulations to prepare personnel for when the next epidemic starts
- improve research and development for treatments
191
what was the awareness problem with ebola (1)
- it took a long time for reports to be sent out that were often very inaccurate
192
how should the media cover pandemics/epidemics like ebola
- inform the public with evidence-based facts
- to lessen the fear and stigma by giving accurate and timely coverage about the disease
193
How was HIV presented on the media in the 1980s compared to how ebola was presented in 2014
- the media predominately framed HIV by being the disease of gay people and drug addicts
- Ebola was also very slowly presented on the media; however, it only was properly covered when it was brought to the US
194
talk about zika in relation to its spread of disease, its affects, and is there a treatment
zika:
- not as deadly because it is curable and does not cause as many deaths, and mosquitoes can only travel as far as 400m
- however, it has major neurological effects on babies (age is a relevant factor - the risk to life is x11 higher in the first 3 years of life)
- The range and speed of the outbreak have expanded due to the way it spreads, by humans as well as mosquitos, because of relocation diffusion, increasing the spread of the disease
- there is no treatment available for people with the zika virus however people are urged to rest and drink lots of fluids
195
in west africa, who was affected by the ebola outbreak and how many suspected cases and deaths occured
- hospital workers who works closely with the highly contagious body fluids of victims were especially vulnerable to contracting the virus
- in August 2014 the WHO reported that 10% of the dead had been healthcare workers
- in May 2016 the WHO and respective governments reported 28,000 suspected cases and 11,000 deaths
196
Why did the Ebola outbreak occur in West Africa? who was the first case?
- generally believed that it was one or a two year old boy who died in December 2013 in a village in Guinea that marked the start of the ebola virus
- scientist deduce that bats are involved in the spreading of the virus and incidentally the boys home was near a large bat colony
- the mother sister and grandmother later became ill with similar symptoms and died and had spread the disease to other villages
- these early cases were diagnosed as other conditions more common in the area, and the disease had several months to spread before it officially became recognised as a ebola
197
What is the speed of spread of malaria
- Half the world's population is at risk of malaria
- malaria does not generally affect the north of the world due to climate restrictions and cold temperatures however global warming may cause malaria to spread and migrate northerly in countries that are not prepared for it
- age is also a relevant factor -> infants, children under five and pregnant women are the most at risk
197
What are the measures against the deadliness of diseases
- the total mortality rate
- speed of spread
- case fatality rate (if I get it, what is the risk I will die)
- Treatments and known preventions
198
What is the fatality rate of malaria, how much money is invested into it
It takes weeks or months for fatality to kick in, therefore, you have more time to access treatments. $200 million per year is invested in malaria prevention in Ethiopia, and because malaria develops slowly, the healthcare system is less likely to be overwhelmed. However, in times of droughts, healthcare systems are strained, reducing the level of healthcare reaching malaria-affected people, which reaches around 2.9 million people
199
What are the treatments and known preventions for malaria
- it has known treatment and is curable
- treatment requires an injection by a medical professional however in Ethiopia they had difficulty reaching rural people to treat them
- however the mosquitoes can become resistant to the treatment that kills them
200
What is the case study for cholera
Haiti
201
What is the total mortality rate for cholera in Haiti
Haiti has a low immunity to cholera resulting in high mortality rates
202
What is the speed of spread for cholera + example
Cholera can spread far and quickly due to the mode of transmission (UN peacekeepers spread cholera from Nepal to Haiti - one camp in 2010 ultimately resulted in 820,000 cases over the next nine years and resulted in 10,000 deaths). Earthquakes can also increase the risk of colour outbreaks. This is because they can damage sewage systems causing many displace people to live in temporary living areas where there's a lack of medication, healthcare services and poor quality of water
203
What is the treatment like for cholera
Treatment is easy and simple – there is a colour a pill that can be distributed far and quickly and water pumps and improve sanitation is all that is needed to eradicate cholera from a population
204
What is the case fatality rate for cholera
People can suffer from cholera fairly quickly and only have a short window to live – it can kill you from 12 hours to 5 days
