Global trends in consumption Flashcards
1
Q
what is meant by the “new global middle class”
A
The growth of the middle class demographic that causes an increase in: resource consumption, demand, and expectations of living
2
Q
what has been the impact of the MDG around the world
A
- increase in global middle class
- 1965: total number of middle class was 732 million out of 3.3 billion
- 2030: estimated middle class will be 4.9 billion out of 8 billion people
3
Q
define biocapacity
A
land and water to provide resources for humanity
4
Q
define ecological footprint
A
hypothetical area of land required by a society, group or an individual to fufill all their resource needs and assimilate all their waste and measured in global hectares (ha). For example, a country with an ecological footprint of 3.2 times its geographical area consumes resources that would require a land area 3.2 times the actual size of the country
5
Q
name 3 positives of increasing population
A
- rapid innovation -> boosts economy
- expansion of market size for goods
- Asia - 53% of global GDP in 2050
6
Q
name 3 negatives of an increasing population
A
- higher waste disposal
- increased energy demand
- increase consumption of foreign goods can have disastrous environmental impacts (cattle rearing)
7
Q
what is the distribution of biocapacity globally
A
- high biocapacity in rainforests, icier regions
- low biocapacity in desert areas -> MENA
8
Q
what is the distribution of the ecological footprint globally
A
- high EF in HIC
- low EF in LIC
9
Q
is a high ecological footprint bad or worse
A
- high ecological footprint is bad
10
Q
do the trends of the growth of the middle class continue? + example
A
No
-> 1960s -> Brazil and S Korea experienced similar growth rates and income
-> 1980s -> Brazil’s middle class accounted for less than 30% of the population, and South Korea was more than 50% of to the population
-> due to South Korea’s growth over Brazil, it could diversify its economy away from export–consumption to domestic consumption
-> not all middle class has economic security. Many are on $4 incomes and remain vulnerable to unemployment, unemployment and informal jobs
11
Q
factors used in full ecological footprint
A
- bioproductive land and sea
- energy land
- built land (urban)
- biodiversity land
- non-productive land
12
Q
What is the global trend of the middle class
A
A huge shift in the middle class to Asia from Europe and North America:
-> estimated 400 million in the middle class by 2030 in most parts of Asia in especially: India, China, Indonesia
13
Q
What is the water-food-energy Nexus concept?
A
Refers to the close link between these three sectors, and stresses the need for stewardship of these resources
14
Q
What is an ecological creditor
A
An ecological creditor is a country with an ecological footprint lower than their carrying capacity.
15
Q
what is ecological debtor
A
An ecological debtor is a country with an ecological footprint greater than their carrying capacity
16
Q
What is the global distribution of ecological debtors
A
Higher income countries: North America, Europe, MENA, Central/East Asia
17
Q
What is the global distribution of ecological creditors
A
South America, South Africa, Oceania, Scandinavia
18
Q
Name three factors affecting Nexus
A
-Climate change
-urging economies means higher resource use (BRICS)
Pollution
19
Q
name the four key benefits of Nexus-based adaptations
A
-Goal
-core principles
Main focus
-broad strategies
20
Q
Briefly explain the benefits of the goal of a Nexus-based adaptation
A
The goal in order to use resources efficiently to achieve water, energy and food security objectives in order to build adaptive capacity against climate change risks
21
Q
Briefly explain the benefits of the core principles of an Nexus based adaptation
A
The principle aims to minimise resource waste and increase economic efficiency by managing and reducing vulnerability to climate change risks
22
Q
Briefly explain the benefits of the main focus of an Nexus based adaptation
A
Provided integrated solutions at multiple scales in order to minimise shock, risks and vulnerability with climate change to reduce overall poverty
23
Q
Briefly explained the benefits of broad strategies in an nexus based adaptation
A
Broad strategies include policy integration, harmonisation and governance to generate co-benefits across all sectors and stakeholders. This helps build resilience for climate change mitigation
24
Q
what are the benefits of knowing the ecological footprint of an area?
A
- can act as a model for monitoring the environmental impact
- allow for direct comparisons between groups and individuals (HICs and LICs)
- Can highlight sustainable and unsustainable lifestyles
25
estimated remaining world supplies of non-renewable resources:
- fossil fuels
- ecosystems
- minerals
- fossil fuels = 40 years left
- ecosystems = 100 years left
- minerals = 45 years left (however some as short as 10-20 years left)
26
how does a country increase their ecological footprint (3)
- having a large per capita consumption of food (i.e. having a meat-rich diet)
- high levels of imported foods
- relying heavily on fossil fuels
27
how does a country decrease their ecological footprint (3)
- improving the efficiency of resources
- reducing its population to reduce its resource use
- using technology to intensify land use (GM crops to increase yield on the same area of land)
28
what is Earth Overshoot Day
The day in the year when humanity has used up all the resources that it takes the planet to regenerate
29
how do nations ecological footprints compare?
HICs ->
- more disposable income
- high demand of energy resources and consumption
- produce far more waste than LICs as by-products of pollution
- HICs are usually high meat-eating countries, which take up more land and energy, as animals take 90% of the energy they eat for respiration and mobility
- greater reliance on fossil fuels
LICs ->
- lower disposable income
- the informal economy has led to an increase in recycling
- more commonly veg countries, that use less energy to grow more crops
30
name 1 HIC and 1 LIC comparing ecological footprints
HIC: France
- Ecological footprint: 4.5 Hectares per person
LIC: Ethiopia
- Ecological footprint: 1.0 Hectares per person
31
what are the global patterns and trends in water availability and consumption
- HIC: high industrial use (60%)
- LIC: high agricultural use
- water availability will decrease in many regions
->, i.e. 300 million people in sub-Saharan Africa live in a water-scarce environment, and Central and Southern Europe are predicted to get drier as a result of climate change
32
name 4 reasons that cause the trend of an increase in pressure to manage water
- population growth -> set to reach 9 billion by 2050 (some say it may reach a peak of 11 billion)
- the growing middle class -> increasing affluence leads to greater water consumption, for example, showers, baths, gardening
- tourism and agriculture -> increased water usage for swimming pools, water parks and golf courses
- urbanisation -> Urban areas require significant investment in water and sanitation facilities to get water to people and to remove waste products hygienically
33
what is virtual water
how water is transferred from one country to another through its exports, i.e. in clothes, food, flowers, manufactured goods
34
what are the continental patterns with virtual water
- most virtual water is being exported from south-east/south Asia and South America to Europe
35
why is virtual water important + how can countries become dependant on it (is this good)
- allows countries to outsource their water from countries that have more water resources = dependency
- for example: Mexico imports maize, and saves 12 billion cubic metres of water each year
- if there are conflicts in the country you are importing from, that can affect many aspects of our country
36
why do people eat more convenience food as the level of economic development increases?
- food consumption is price-dependant
- in LICs, an increase in economic development increases the calorie intake, because people have a greater disposable income
- Rising incomes allow for priority of convenience over cost
- shifting lifestyles, like changes in work culture, provide less cooking time
- Globalisation -> International companies expand to other nations
- Dietary changes -> varied diets arise, and often in processed forms
37
what is the impact of food production? (Brazil - case study)
- reached the most remote parts of Brazil
- 1 million new cases of obesity
- destruction of dietary diversity (changing from traditional diet to processed food diet due to increasing economic power and targeted marketing towards ultra-processed foods)
38
what is the difference between adaptation and mitigation
adaptation - making changes to something that has already happened
mitigation - making changes to prevent something happening
39
why has energy insecurity risen? (6)
- increasing demand, especially from newly industrialising countries
- decreased reserves as supplies are being used up
- global warming and natural disasters, such as Hurricane Katrina, have increased awareness about the misuse of energy
- terrorist activities such as in Syria
- The conflict between Russia and Ukraine
- where countries get energy from a sole supplier
40
who controls the majority of the global oil reserves
Middle East
41
The USA consumes over 200 million barrels per day, why is this an issue?
Because they have far fewer reserves of oil, they need to source from somewhere else
42
how does the middle east benefit?
source of oil for the USA
43
how does the USA keep good relations with the Middle East for oil
- ensures political stability in the Middle East
- maintains good political links with the Middle East
- involves the Middle East in economic cooperation
44
Why is the demand for fossil fuels increasing in LICs?
-> because of their rising population, rising incomes and technological advancements
45
who has a higher demand for fossil fuels and why?
HICs, because the economies of hICs have been based on a high-energy generation built on fossil fuels
46
name 3 adv of fossil fuels
- relatively cheap
- plentiful
- technologies have been developed for the same extraction and use of fossil fuels
47
name 3 dis.adv of fossil fuels
- most important contributor to the build-up of carbon dioxide
- unsustainable -> finite stock
- extraction may be more difficult as mines get deeper and oil rigs are placed further out to sea, such as in the Gulf of Mexico
48
3 pros of wind energy
- efficient use of land space
- low operating costs
- can work in multiple settings
49
3 cons of wind energy
- noise and visual pollution
- construction can cause local disturbances
- reliant on wind to work
50
pro of tidal energy
- more powerful energy source than wind
51
2 pros of wave energy
- reliable
- zero emissions
52
3 cons of tidal energy
- initial cost is very high
- effect on animals and plants living near tidal stations
- very few suitable sites for constructing barrages
53
2 cons of wave energy
- scalability
- high costs
54
what is nuclear power
Use of fission reactors (uranium is bombarded with neutrons) to make it unstable so it splits apart to release energy to heat water to produce steam to turn a turbine
55
nuclear power pros (6)
- emission-free
- sustainable
- has a small footprint
- 50% of USA power is from nuclear power
- big investment in smaller reactors that are safer, cheaper, portable and easier to operate
- can be used 24/7, whereas other renewable sources (like solar) can only be used at a specific time
- can be operated remotely -> reduce risk to human life
56
nuclear power cons (3)
- produces radioactive nuclear waste
- changed perspective against nuclear power due to accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima
- expensive
57
3 adv of HEP
- created water reserves as well as energy supplies
- high quality energy output, with low energy input
- reservoirs used for amenity
58
3 disadv of HEP
- costly to build
- have to relocate people to flood the area
- have major environmental issues with the life cycles of marine animals
59
2 adv of biomass
- cheap and readily available
- if crops are replanted, biomass can be used for a long time
60
3 disadv of biomass
- maybe replacing food crops on finite cropland and lead to starvation
- when burned, it still releases atmospheric pollutants
- if crops are not replanted, it is now non-renewable
61
3 disadv of solar energy
- need sunshine, do not work in the dark
- need maintenance regularly
- manufacture and implementation can be costly
62
4 adv of solar energy
- potentially infinite supply
- safe to use
- single dwellings can have their own energy supply
- northern countries have limited supply in winter
63
how do we get solar energy?
from the conversion of solar radiation into energy via chemical energy
64
2 adv of waste
- readily available
- does not deplete natural capital
65
1 dis.adv of waste
- burning waste adds to global warming
66
what is peak oil?
refers to the year in which the world or an individual oil-producing country reaches its highest level of production, with production declining thereafter
67
why does peak oil vary from country to country?
- discovered in the 1960s
- but the usage of oil passed the amount found in 1980s
- has different rates of usage and discovery around the world, because advancements in technology and mining have allowed some countries to discover more than others
68
have we reached peak oil? why can’t we be sure?
- reliable data is jealously guarded
- peak oil can be affected by many other factors
- countries are discovering and using oil and different rates
69
what is the change in global energy demand
- HICs = major consumers of energy
- NICs = increasingly rapid demand
- Energy resources are used in large quantities for manufacturing and transport
- Non-renewable resources are still used due to the fact there are recoverable resources and the infrastructure is already in place to use these
70
why is there a change in global energy demand?
- LICs and MICs will continue to grow faster than HICs, but their consumption remains low in comparison
- As economic growth rates slow down as economies mature, there may be a small decline in the use of energy
- However, countries with high living standards will consume large amounts of energy and import many goods and services
- Nevertheless, new sources of energy may emerge (like, fracking and tar sands), and BRICS and other emerging economies will demand and increasing proportion of the world’s energy resources
71
what is nexus
the interrelationship, interdependence and interactions between water, food and energy
72
what is the nexus approach
stresses the need for stewardship of these resources
73
what are the sustainable development goals (SDGs)
The 17 SDGs were introduced in 2015 and are set to exist until 2030. They replaced the millennium development goals that existed between 2000 and 2015
74
Case study (a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region, South Asia)
how many people of the global pop and what percentage of water and land does the south Asian population rely on?
population: 66% of global population
water consumption: 59% of global water consumption
land usage: 3% globally
75
Case study (a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region, South Asia)
name 4 Himalayan ecosystem services + examples of each
- provisioning: freshwater, raw minerals
- regulating: climate regulation, biological control
- supporting: erosion control, recharging groundwater
- cultural: recreation, traditional knowledge and practices of conservation
76
Case study (a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region, South Asia)
name two ways (facts) the Hindu Kush population is undernourished
- per capita arable land is continually declining due to population growth, urbanisation and increasing biofuel cultivation to meet energy demand
- food production is becoming increasingly water and energy dependent, therefore agricultural growth is constrained due to a shortage of water and energy supplies and a declining water table
77
Case study (a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region, South Asia)
name two ways (facts) the Hindu Kush population experience water stress
- there is a high dependence from downstream communities on upstream communities for water to grow food and for hydropower, as HKH rivers are the lifeline for irrigation in the dry season
- growing water demand is expected to increase by 55% since 2005, as there is increased water pollution. This leads to waterborne diseases, high child mortality and poor human health
78
Case study (a nexus perspective from the Hindu Kush Himalayan region, South Asia)
name two ways (facts) the Hindu Kush population experience energy stress
- 63% of the population is without access to electricity, and 65% use biomass for cooking, due to a growing demand for water and land for energy production
- hydropower in the Himalayas is limited in places due to the risk of causing landslides, therefore energy diversification is needed to meet growing demands (having different sources of energy)
79
Case study (Improving food security in South Africa)
what are the issues being faced in south africa for their agricultural potential
- 10% reduction is rainfall = 4% reduction in maize fields
- increased temperatures means a decrease in potato production
80
Case study (Improving food security in South Africa)
what are the solutions in south africa for their agricultural potential
- diversification of crops
- changes in planting times
- greater use of shade crops
- change from flood irrigation to sprinkler irrigation
81
Case study (Improving food security in South Africa)
what are the consequences of climate change on food security in South Africa
impacts on crop productivity:
- increase in temperature and changes in the timing, frequency and amount of rainfall has harmed agricultural systems
- In the dry western areas, crop production will become more marginal, while in the high-potential eastern areas there may be a slight increase in production
Impacts on food production:
- sugar cane appears to be most resilient to climate change, and yield rates are projected to increase by 55%
- barley will experience a yield reduction of 20-50% for the warmer regions
82
what are the main reasons for poor resource security in south asia?
- lack of water
- lack of energy to grow food
- growing population pressure
83
what are the main reasons for poor resource security in south africa?
- lack of water for food production
- growing climate change pressure
84
how can climate change influence the nexus?
- influence the distribution of pests and diseases
- higher temperatures and evapotranspiration rates will reduce water supplies and increase the need for additional water provision
- attempts to limit climate change may have an impact on the water-energy-food nexus, e.g. the production of biofuels and HEP - can create new demands for water resources
- influences food availability, crop yields, water availability and the need for irrigation
85
Case study (Improving food security in South Africa)
what are the consequences of climate change on food quality in South Africa
- rising minimum temperatures are a problem for the fruit industry due to sunburn and heat stress, especially for apple farming, in terms of fruit quality
- usually, chilling units during autumn and winter are needed, but in their absence, hormone sprays are used to ensure this condition, but some EU countries demand them to be phased them out, due to possible health concerns
86
Case study (Improving food security in South Africa)
what are the consequences of climate change on livestock farming in South Africa
- livestock will need greater water requirements for livestock heat stress
- the Northern Cape, a desert zone, accounts for the largest proportion of livestock (44%) in the country, therefore if climate change exacerbates water shortages in the desert, livestock farming will be affected
87
what are the methods of waste management
which is the best and which is the worst
- remove - best
- reduce
- re-source
- reuse
- recycle
- recover
- return - worst
88
how do the volume of waste vary over time, culture and society?
- more paper and plastic waste is generated around Christmas
- more garden waste around the summer months
- HICs produce a considerably larger volume of waste than LICs
89
what are the social impacts of unsafe rubbish disposal
- waste pickers tend to have a low social status
- they face public scorn, harassment, and violence
- they are vulnerable to exploitation by middlemen who buy their recovered material
- they live in deplorable conditions: lack of water, sanitation and other basic infrastructure
- vulnerable to health and safety risks, including exposure to dangerous waste, and various illnesses and diseases
- low life expectancy rates, i.e. in Mexico City, dumpsite waste collectors live an average of 39 years, compared to 69 years for the general population
90
what are the economic impacts of unsafe rubbish disposal
- In some cities of Colombia, India, and Mexico city, waste pickers can receive as little as 5% of the prices that the industry pays them for the recyclables
91
what are the environmental impacts of unsafe rubbish disposal
- The world’s largest dumps pollute rivers, groundwater, air and soil and harm the people who live there
-The Mbeumbeuss waste dump in Senegal covers some 175 hectares, whereas the dump used to receive few thousand tonnes of rubbish a year in the 1960s, it now takes 475,000 tonnes of rubbish a year - increasingly e-waste from computers, television and mobile phones
92
what are the 6 forms of waste disposal
- recycling
- reduce/reuse
- composting
- landfill
- incineration
- EFW (the energy from waste)
93
how does recycling aid pollution
- the recycling of paper, glass and some metals and plastics saves scarce materials and helps reduce pollution, i.e. in Europe, there are high rates of recycling (Austria, Germany, Netherlands)
94
how is reduce/reuse good for waste disposal
- reuse is more energy efficient than recycling
- can involve individual reuse of materials (containers, bags)
- reduce includes using less energy such as turning off lights when not needed
95
how is composting good for waste disposal
- the decomposition of biodegradable material
- it recycles organic household waste into humus-like soil or compost, which returns valuable nutrients back to the soil
96
are landfills good for disposable waste?
- cheap
- not healthy
- living near landfill sites increases teh risk of health problems (heart diseases)
- landfills need to located close to the source of waste to be economic (near high pop density)
- give off gases like methane and may contaminate water supplies and is a greenhouse gas
- chemicals and heavy metals can pollute the soil and groundwater
- the noise, smell and vermin asssociated with landfill means that they should be sited away from residential areas
97
Evaluate incineration for waste disposal
- converts waste to ash and gas
- heat can be used to generate electricity
- they can reduce the volume of the original waste by 80-90%
- can dispose of hazardous waste products safely
- air pollution - C02, S02, NO2, NO, can also lead to other env problems like acid rain and smog, increasing rates of lung disease
- increased volume of traffic to get waste to incinerators
- toxic ash is equal to 10-20% of the mass of the original waste
- high initial capital cost
98
evaluate EFW (Export of waste)
- many municipal incinerators are trying to produce energy from waste
- i.e. Puente Hills (LA) produces enough methane to generate electricity for 70,000 homes
- however, communities prefer these facilities to be located “somewhere else”
- the USA has some 1900 municipal landfill sites
99
what are the strategies to manage solid domestic waste
- altering human activity, including reducing consumption and composting food waste
- controlling the release of pollutants, by governing and legislating to encourage recycling
- reuse initiatives
- imposing taxes on SDW collection and on disposable items
- reclaiming landfill using SDW for ‘trash to energy’ programme and clean-up restoration programmes
100
what is the global comparison of garbage
- urban areas generate more waste than rural
- the costs of dealing with the disposal of this rubbish are high
- rubbish is expected to rise to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025
101
briefly explain the export of waste
- containers that arrive in the UK and other countries with goods exported from China, load up their waste products for the journey back to China
China imports:
- more than 3 million tonnes of waste plastic
- 15 million tonnes of paper and cardboard each year
102
what is E-waste?
- the waste and toxic chemicals released from electronics
103
what is the process of E-waste
- 1000s of different minerals and metals and mined from all over the world
- they are shipped to factors where underpaid workers construct these electronics in hazardous conditions and experience frequent bouts of illnesses
- they get sent to the consumer who buys these products in stores
- after the electronic has lived its use, they are sent to a dumping site (usually in Guiyu, China (the e-waste capital of the world)
- They deal with the waste by smashing the electronics and taking the valuable metal inside
- they then burn the rest of the electronic and are heavily affected by the toxic chemicals that are released when they do
- The European Environment Agency estimates that between 250,000 tonnes and 1.3 million tonnes of electric products are shipped out of the EU every year
104
what was Malthus’s basic theory (1798) ?
humans will continue to reproduce exponentially until the population of an area will overcome the resources available, and there will be a point of crisis. When pop surpasses resources, the population will decrease as there is not enough biotic potential to sustain them. This is because the population grows exponentially (or geometrically) and food supply only increases at an arithmetic rate
105
what are preventative checks (malthusian)?
- measures taken by humans to reduce shortages
- like family planning or anti-natalist policies
106
what are positive check (malthusian)?
actually quite negative - encouraging fighting, war and famine to reduce the overall pop
107
what was Boserup’s view in 1965?
- Believed that people have the resources to increase food production (resources = knowledge and technology)
- when a need arises someone will find a solution
- was based on the idea that people knew the techniques required by a more intensive system and adopted them when the population grew
- people who believed this school of thought are called “Anti-Malthusians”
108
who are the Neo-Malthusians (The Club of Rome)?
what model did it create? and what did it predict?
This is an idea that follows Malthus’ ideas. They created the Limits to Growth model, which examined natural resources, population, agricultural output, pollution, and industrial production.
- It predicted that the limits to growth would be reached in 2070
- this model suggests that the ability of resources, food, and the environment to meet human needs will be reached by 2070
- beyond this point, if a population is not controlled naturally, it will start to decline due to increased death rates
109
what is carrying capacity?
the amount of organisms within a region that the environment can support sustainably
110
what is the optimum population?
the number of people who, when working with all the available resources, will produce the highest per-capita economic return. Highest standard of living and quality of life. The concept is dynamic - changes with changing population sizes
111
what is overpopulation
occurs when there are too many people, relative to the resources and technology available locally to maintain an adequate standard of living
112
what is underpopulation
far more resources in an area than can be used by the population
113
what is resource stewardship?
using resources in a way that they will be available to future generations. It suggests that there will not only be environmental sustainability but also social equity over access of resources
114
what are global commons
it refers to areas that lie outside political reach of any nation state
115
what are the 4 global commons in the UNEP programme
1. High seas
2. Antartica
3. Atmosphere
4. Outer space
116
what is the tragedy of the commons
a situation in which individuals with access to a public resource act in their own interest and, in doing so, ultimately deplete the resources
117
what is a circular economy
recognises the interconnectedness of our world - the economy, the society and the environment.
118
what are the 3 principles behind a circular economy
- preserve and enhance natural capital -> control finite stocks and balance renewable resource flows
- optimise resource yields -> circulate products -> design for recycling and the remanufacturing of products
- develop system effectiveness by eliminating negative externalities, e.g. pollution and climate change
119
what are the two ways to minimise waste?
technical nutrients:
- strictly limited to non-toxic, non-harmful synthetic materials that have no negative effect
- used in continuous cycles as the same product without losing their integrity
Biological nutrients:
- organic materials, once used, can be disposed of and decompose into soil providing food for small life forms without affecting the natural environment
- but is dependent on region’s ecology
120
Case study - IslaBikes, UK
What are IslaBikes?
Bikes that are made with new technology and are rented to children. When a child outgrows their bike, they return it, where it is cleaned and maintained, before renting it out to the next child. Therefore it is a bike that lives forever. However, one limitation is it is currently implemented in her neighbourhood and not nationally as there are not many bike renting spots in the UK
121
what are the sustainable development goals?
The 17 SDGs were introduced in 2015 and are set to exist until 2030. They replaced the Millennium Development goals
122
name 5 SDGs
- no poverty
- gender equality
- affordable clean energy
- clean water and sanitation
- climate action
