Revision Flashcards
Psychology
The scientific investigation of mental processes and behaviour.
Schools of thought
- behaviourism
- structuralism
- functionalism
- cognitive
- humanism
- evolutionary
Psychology was first a combination of…
philosophy and physiology
Experimental researh
Design that manipulates some aspect of a situation and examines the impact this has on the way participants respond.
Correlation research
assesses the degree to which variables are related, so that knowing the value of one variable can lead to a prediction of the other.
dependent variable
the response measured
independent variable
the variable manipulated
representative sample
sample that reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole
validity
the extent to which a test measures a construct it is supposed to measure, or a study that accurately addresses the hypothesis it attempts to assess.
reliability
a measure’s ability to produce consistent results
inter-rater reliability
multiple experimenters will yield similar results
re-test reliability
performing the experiment multiple times will yield similar results
internal consistency
several ways of asking the same question yield similar results.
experimenter bias
scientists influence the results to convey a certain outcome
quantative research bias
denial of bias
qualitative
acceptance and acknowledgement of bias
design bias
occurs when the researcher fails to take into account inherent bias.
inclusive bias
samples selected for convenience
ommission bias
occurs when certain groups are ommitted from the sample
Interviewer bias
occurs when the interviewer unknowingly gives subtle clues.
Avoid by using a double blind study
participant bias
subject gives the response they think the researcher wants to hear
reporting bias
error in reported results
major divisions and subdivisions of the nervous system
- central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
- peripheral nervous system (other nerves in the body_
- autonomic NS - involuntary human reactions. further divided in sympathetic - fight or flight and parasympathetic- calming
- somatic NS - voluntary movements
structure of a neuron
- nucleus
- dendrites
- axon terminal
- node of ranvier
- schwann cell
- myelin shealth
- soma
firing of a neuron
will fire once it reaches the action potential (-55Mv)
resting potential is (-70mV)
fires from dendrites to axon terminal
hindbrain
lower part of the brain stem - pons -medulla -cerebellum coordinates functions essential for survival- awakeness, breathing, sleep etc.
midbrain
portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation.
- tectum
- tegmentum
forebrain
- cerebral hemispheres
- thalamus
-hypo thalamus
plays a central role in the processing of information
corpus collosum
connects the two cerebral hemispheres. If severed, information will only stay in the one hemisphere.
cerebral lateralisation
the tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be more dominant in one hemisphere than the other
right hemisphere
left side motor skills creativity emotions non-verbal imagination left field of vision
left hemisphere
analytical thought detail verbal right side motor skills right field of vision logic language
split brain patients
- corpus collosum is severed
- information cannot cross hemispheres
One of the experiments carried out by Gazzaniga involved a split-brain patient sitting in front of a computer screen while having words and images presented on either side of the screen and the visual stimuli would go to either the right or left visual field, and thus the left or right brain, respectively. It was observed that if a patient was presented with an image to his left visual field (right brain), he would report not seeing anything. If he was able to feel around for certain objects, he could accurately pick out the correct object, despite not having the ability to verbalize what he saw. This led to confirmation that the left brain is localized for language while the right brain does not have this capability, and when the corpus callosum is cut and the two hemispheres cannot communicate for the speech to be produced.
contralateral control
the setup wherein the motor cortex of both cerebral hemispheres are primarily accountable for handling of motions of the opposite side of one’s body.
cerebral cortex
the outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain.
- the temporal, the occipital lobe, the parietal lobe, and the frontal lobe.
temporal lobe
processing sensory input into derived meanings for the appropriate retention of visual memory, language comprehension, and emotion association
parietal lobe
integrates sensory information among various modalities, including spacial sense and navigation (proprioception), the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch
frontal lobe
plays a large role in voluntary movement. It houses the primary motor cortex which regulates activities like walking.
schema
Cognitive structures that represent knowledge
about a concept or type of stimulus
psychosocial development
the development of the personality, including the acquisition of social attitudes and skills, from infancy through maturity.
zone of proximal development
the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help.
erikson’s theories of development
trust v mistrust: hope (0-1.5 y)
autonomy v shame and guilt: will (1.5-3)
initiative v guilt: purpose (3-5)
industry v inferiority: competency (5-12)
identity v role confusion: fidelity (12-18)
intimacy v isolation: love (18-40)
generativity v stagnation: care (40-65)
integrity v despair: wisdom (65+)
john bowbeys theory of attachment
Indiscriminate sociability (0-2 months) Attachments in the making (2-7 m) Specific, clear cut attachments (7-24 m) goal-coordinated partnerships (24 m +) Survival function: more likely to be fed, protected from predators and to be taught life skills • Nurturance/security function: young are comforted by the caregiver and are distressed in her/his absence
attachment patterns
Secure: Child welcomes mother’s return and seeks
closeness to her (most common)
• Avoidant: Child ignores mother
• Ambivalent: Child exhibits anger at mother while seeking
to be close to her
• Disorganised: Child may approach mother
but gaze away, and may show odd motor
behaviour and dazed facial expressions
categories of peer group status
popular - pro-social, good to be with
rejected- antisocial (aggressive, disrupted), withdrawn (isolated and uninvolved).
neglected- low levels of positive and negative behaviour, minimal peer impact.
controversial- more aggressive than antisocial rejectees but are bright and show leadership qualities.
average- normal levels of all behaviours
classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
operant conditioning
In it, an individual changes its behaviour because of the consequences (results) of the behaviour. The person or animal learns its behaviour has a consequence. That consequence may be. Reinforcement: a positive or rewarding event.
extinction
the weakening of the conditioned
response when the conditioned stimulus is
presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
spotaneous recovery
the re-emergence of a
previously extinguished conditioned response
what is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?
reinforcement- Behaviours that result in pleasant consequences
will be more likely in the future
punishment- Behaviours that result in unpleasant consequences
will be less likely in the future
shaping and chaining
shaping- produces novel behaviour by reinforcing
closer and closer approximations to the desired
response
chaining- involves putting
together a sequence of existing
responses in a novel order
locus of control
The expectancy
of whether or not fate
determines outcomes in life
learned helplessness
The expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events
content v process models of personality
Content: what are we like? focus on explaining the stable elements of personality
Process: How do we become what we are like? focus on explaining the dynamic elements
five factor model
Openness Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
schwart’s model
openness to change
self-transcendence
conservation
self-enhancement
dark triad of personality
psychopathy
narcissism
machiovelianism
self-other consistency
Are we reliable judges of our own/others’
personality?
context dependence
Does our personality vary with contexts and
situations?
WEIRD
western, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic countries.
emic
Emic (understanding driven by cultural members)
etic
Etic (understanding driven by researchers/general theories)
culture shock
a feeling of disorientation and anxiety
that occurs as people from one culture encounter and
adapt to the practices, rules and expectations of
another culture
stages: honeymoon, disenchantment, beginning resolution, effective functioning
acculturation
cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture
Hofstede dimensions
- power distance
- individualism
- masculinity
- uncertainty avoidance
- longterm orientation
Health Belief Model
Suggests that health behaviours are predicted by:
- percieved susceptibility to a health threat
- percieved seriousness/severity
- benefits and barriers
- cues to action
Protection Motivation Theory of Health
health belief model + self-efficacy
Theory of Reasoned Action
attitudes toward health behavior +subjective norms = influence on performance of behavior.
Theory of Planned Behaviour
theory of reasoned action + percieved behavioural control
Transtheoretical Model
stages of change:
- precontemplation
- contemplation
- preparation
- action
- maintenance
Barriers to modifying poor health
- cumulative damage
- unhealthy behaviours
- can be pleasurable and addictive
instability and interventions with at risk people
health habits are controled by different factors
factors may change over the history of the behaviour
health patterns vary over the lifetime
coping
Problem-focused coping strategies represent actions that have the goal of changing or eliminating the stressor
Emotion-focused coping strategies:
The escape-avoidance strategy involves shifting your attention away from the stressor and toward other activities
Seeking social support involves turning to friends, relatives, or other people for emotional, tangible, or informational support
In distancing, you acknowledge the stressor but attempt to minimize or eliminate its emotional impact
Denial is a refusal to acknowledge that the problem even exists
Positive reappraisal occurs when you not only try to minimize the negative emotional aspects of the situation, but also try to create positive meaning by focusing on personal growth
attitude
An attitude is a relatively enduring organisation of
beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies
towards socially significant objects, groups, events,
and symbols.
social cognition
The study of how people attend to, perceive,
interpret and respond to social stimuli
persuasion studies looked at
- communicator
- message
- channel
- context
- audience variables
attribution
The processes by which people infer the causes
of their own and others’ behaviour
Characteristics/components of attitudes
Cognitive component (Thinking) Emotional component (Feeling) Behavioural component (Acting)
Elaboration likelihood model
Two routes through which receiver may process message content Central Route: message recipient highly attentive and processes information through careful thought and rational thinking Peripheral Route: bypasses rational process and appeals to other processes such as heart or stomach e.g. Fast Food or beer adds not presenting a rational message but appealing to senses
Types of schemas (what is a person schema, event schema, self schema?)
Event schemas / scripts • associated with a particular situation, they tell us what to expect. Self-schemas ◦ Self concept Person schemas • knowledge structures about specific people / types of people
Realistic conflict theory
Conflict produced not
by personality, but by
competition for scarce
resources
social identity theory
refers to the
way that our group
memberships affect our self
concept
YALE studies
Manipulated aspects of persuasive
situation and looked at effects on
attitudinal change
Phobic disorder
fear out of proportion to any
actual danger
Generalised anxiety disorder
Nonspecific fears and anxiety
• Hypervigilance results in
distractibility, fatigue,
irritability and sleep problems
Panic disorder
Characterised by panic attacks – sudden overwhelming attacks of terror • Physical symptoms such as increased heart‐rate, sweating, shortness of breath common
OCD
Obsessive‐compulsive disorder (OCD) is
characterised by:
– Obsessions: persistent, unwanted and often
irrational thoughts and ideas
– Compulsions: intentional behaviours or rituals
performed in response to an obsession
Depressive disorders
characterised by
disturbances in emotion and mood
(particularly negative mood)
Bipolar
A mood disorder characterised by alternating periods
of depression and mania
• Bipolar disorder, which tends to run in families,
typically emerges in adolescence or early adulthood
eclectic psychotherapy
sees clinicians combine
techniques from different approaches to fit the
particular client
integrative psychotherapy
sees clinicians choose
elements from different approaches to develop their
own unique approach to treatment
general adaption syndrome
Alarm Reaction: Body resources are mobilized to cope with added stress
Stage of Resistance: Body adjusts to stress but at a high physical cost; resistance to other stressors is lowered
Stage of Exhaustion: Body’s resources are drained and stress hormones are depleted, possibly resulting in psychosomatic disease, loss of health, or complete collapse
types of neurons
- Sensory neurons (input)
Sensory information from sensory cells to brain. - Inter neuron
Connects neurons (brain and spinal cord). - Motor neuron (output)
From interneurons to glands and muscles.
Neurotransmitters
dopamine - happiness, pleasure, love seratonin- happiness endorphines- mood improving glutamate- memory acetylcholine- learning gaba- calming
reticular formation
regulates awakeness
thalamus
directing information
assimilation
fitting new info fits into existing schemas
accommodation
new info alters the existing schema
abnormal behaviour
social norm deviance+personal distress+maladaptove behaviour.
