RESEARCH METHODS: Year 12 Flashcards
What is meant by the AIM?
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
(the purpose of the study)
What is a hypothesis?
A clear, precise, testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables
What are the 2 different types of hypothesis?
Directional & Non-directional
What does a directional hypothesis do?
States the direction of the difference or relationship
What does a non-directional hypothesis do?
Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship
When do researchers tend to use directional hypotheses?
When a theory or the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome
What happens to the Independent variable (IV) and why?
Directly manipulated by the researcher (or changes naturally) - so the effect on the DV can be measured
What happens to the Dependant variable (DV)?
Measured by the researcher
What is needed in order to test the effect of the IV?
Different experimental conditions
- this creates a comparison
What are the two types of condition called?
- Control condition
- Experimental condition
What is Operationalisation?
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
What must be done to the variables to make the hypothesis testable?
The variables must be:
Operationalised
(e.g. showing measurements or timing)
What are the 3 research issues?
- Extraneous variables
- Confounding variables
- Demand characteristics
What are Extraneous variables?
+ what do they not do?
Any variable, other than the IV, that may affect the dependant variable if not controlled
- they do not vary systematically with the IV
Examples of Extraneous variables:
- Age of participants
- Lighting in the lab
What are Confounding variables?
+ what do they do? and therefore…?
A kind of EV however they DO vary systematically with the IV
- therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable
What’s the difference between Extraneous variables and confounding variables?
Extraneous variables DO NOT vary systematically with the IV & Confounding variables DO
What is meant by Investigator effects? + example referring to an energy drink study
Any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome
e.g. unconscious behaviour= encouraging greater level of chattiness from energy drink participants
What is a good example of the power of investigator effects?
Leading questions
What is randomisation and what does it do?
The use of chance methods to reduce the researchers unconscious biases when designing an investigation
(an attempt to control Investigator effects)
- minimises the effects of extraneous/confounding variables on the outcome
What is Standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
Example of how standardisation could be used in a study:
Using standardised instructions that are read to each participant
What are the 3 experimental designs?
- Independent groups
- Repeated measures
- Matched pairs
What are Independent groups?
How many levels of the IV do participants experience?
When two separate groups experience two different conditions of the experiment
- only experience 1 level of the IV
What are Repeated measures?
How many levels of the IV do participants experience?
When all participants experience both conditions of the experiment
- experience both levels of the IV
What are matched pairs?
When participants are paired together on a variable or variables relevant to the experiment
Example of how participants could be matched in a memory study:
IQ
What happens to the pairs in a matched pairs experimental design?
They would be allocated to a different condition of the experiment
Why are pairs in matched pairs allocated to different conditions?
What does it attempt to do?
Control for the confounding variable of participant variables
LIMITATION: Independent groups
- What’s wrong in terms of the participants in each group?
- How could this interfere with the DV?
- What may these differences act as?
- What may this do to the findings?
- What could researchers do to deal with this problem?
- The participants in the different groups are not the same in terms of participant variables
- The difference between groups on the DV may be more to do with participant variables than the effects of the IV
- As a confounding variable
- May reduce the validity of the findings
- Use random allocation
STRENGTHS: Independent groups
- What are they compared to repeated measures?
- What does this increase?
- What is not a problem when using Independent groups?
- Why would this be a problem in repeated measures?
- Less economical as each participant contributes a single result only
- Time & money spent on recruiting participants
- Order effects
- Participants could guess the aim= demand characteristics= findings are less valid
LIMITATION: Repeated measures
- What is the biggest issue in terms of participants?
- What may the order of these tasks be? and why is this a problem?
- What do researchers use to deal with this issue? and what does it do? (ABBA)
- How else might order effects happen?
- What might this cause the participants to do?
- What could it lead to in terms of participants behaviour?
- Each participant has to do at least two tasks
- They may be significant so there are order effects
- Counterbalancing= half participants take part in condition A then B, other half do B then A
- when repeating two tasks becomes boring it may cause their results on the second task to worsen or get better due to practice
- Guess the aim of the study
- Demand characteristics
STRENGTHS: Repeated measures
- What are controlled during a repeated measures experimental design?
- And what does this lead to?
- Why else are repeated measures useful in terms of numbers?
- Participant variables
- Higher validity
- Less participants are needed= less time spent recruiting them
LIMITATION: Matched pairs
- what does matched pairs fail to do in terms of participants? and why may this be a problem
- what 2 things can matching pairs be?
- what does this mean about the design overall?
- fails to match participants exactly= will still be important differences between them that may affect the DV
- can be time-consuming and expensive
- It is less economical than other designs
STRENGTHS: Matched pairs
- What is less of a problem and why?
- order effects & demand characteristics= participants only take part in one condition
What are the 4 types of experiments?
- Laboratory experiments
- Field experiments
- Natural experiments
- Quasi-experiments
Where are Lab experiments conducted?
In highly controlled conditions
What happens to the IV and DV in Lab experiments?
IV is manipulated, effect on DV is measured
Strengths of Lab experiments
- High control over confounding & extraneous variables
- so any effect on DV likely to be result of manipulation of the IV
- High internal validity
- Can be replicated due to high control
Limitations of Lab experiments
- May lack generalisability (artificial environment)
- Low external validity
- Demand characters may occur
- Low mundane realism ( may not represent everyday experience)
Where are field experiments conducted?
- where does the researcher normally go?
Natural, more everyday setting - the researcher goes to the participants usual environment
What happens to the IV in Field experiments?
IV manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting
Strengths of Field experiments
- Higher mundane realism (environment is more natural)
- produce more valid and authentic behaviour (participants may be unaware they are being studied)
- High external validity
Limitations of Field experiments
- loss of control of confounding and extraneous variables
(cause and effect between the IV & DV may be more difficult to establish) - Precise replication is often not possible
- Ethical issues such as consent may cause problems (participants unaware they are being studied)
What are natural experiments similar to?
- and why?
Lab or field experiments
- researcher measures effect of IV on DV
What happens to the IV and DV in natural experiments?
- What has the researcher got no control over?
- What is natural?
- What can the DV be? (2 things)
- Research has no control over IV and cannot change it
- IV is natural (someone or something else causes the IV to vary, e.g. after a natural disaster)
- DV may be naturally occurring (e.g exam results) or devised by the experimenter and measured in the field or lab
Strengths of natural experiments
- High external validity (involve the study of real-world issues and problems as they happen)
- Results are more likely applicable & generalisable to real life situations
Limitations of natural experiments
- Natural occurring events may be rare, reducing the opportunities for research
- Causes a lack of generalisability
- Hard to know if IV affected the DV (participants not randomly allocated to experimental conditions)
- Research may be conducted in a Lab
- lack of realism & demand characteristics may be an issue
What happens to the IV and DV in Quasi-experiments?
- what is the IV based on?
- what does this mean about the IV?
- what can the IV not do?
- what 2 things could the DV be?
- IV based on an existing difference between people (e.g. gender or age)
- has not been manipulated
- IV cannot be changed (e.g. having a phobia)
- DV may be naturally occurring (e.g. exam results) or may be devised by experimenter and measured in the field or lab.
Strengths of Quasi-experiments
- Carried out under controlled conditions (share some strengths of lab experiments)
- Can be replicated
Limitations of Quasi-experiments
- May be confounding variables (cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions)
- IV is not deliberately changed by researcher so unclear if IV caused any observed change
What are the 5 types of sampling techniques?
- Random
- Systematic
- Stratified
- Opportunity
- Volunteer
What is Random sampling?
- what does this give every member of the target group?
- how could this be done?
- an equal chance of being selected for the sample
- e.g. by assigning a number to each member, and then selecting from the pool at using a random number generator
Strengths of Random sampling
- Each member has the same probability of being selected
- reasonable chance of achieving representative sample
- Potentially unbiased, enhancing internal validity
Limitations of Random sampling
- Difficult and time-consuming to conduct
- May end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative, reducing its generalisability
- Could easily turn into a volunteer sample due to selected participants not wanting to take part
What is Systematic sampling?
- what is it chosen for?
- how does it differ from random sampling?
- When selecting from a target group, e.g. every fourth person in a list could be used in the sample.
- does not give an equal chance of selection to each individual in the target group.
Strengths of Systematic sampling
- Assuming the list order has been randomised, this method offers an unbiased chance of gaming a representative sample
- sampling method is objective= once the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen
Limitations of Systematic sampling
- Time-consuming
- Participants may refuse to take part= resulting in a volunteer sample
- If list has been assembled in any other way, bias may be presented
What is stratified sampling?
- what does the sampler do?
- what happens to these sections?
- what should the sample created contain?
- Sampler divides or ‘stratifies’ the target group into sections, each showing a key characteristic which should be present in the final sample
- each section sampled individually
- The sample created should contain members from each key characteristic in a proportion representative of the target population
Strengths of stratified sampling
- Produces a representative sample= designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population
- Is generalisable
Limitations of stratified sampling
- Stratification is not perfect= the identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different
- Complete representation of the target population is not possible
- Takes more time and resources to plan
What is opportunity sampling?
- Participants who are both accessible & willing to take part are targeted
Strengths of opportunity sampling?
- Convenient
- Less costly in terms of money & time= list of members of the target population is not required
Limitations of opportunity sampling?
- suffer from two forms of bias:
1st= sample is unrepresentative of the target population & is drawn from a very specific area. - This reduces its generalisability
2nd: Researcher bias= researcher has complete control over the selection of participants, so may avoid people they do not like the look of
What is volunteer sampling?
- what does the sample consist of & involve?
- how could this be done?
- Sample consists of people who have volunteered to be in the study
- Involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample
- e.g. adverts placed in a newspaper
Strengths of volunteer sampling
- Easy to collect
- less time-consuming, requires minimal input from the researcher
- Researcher ends up with participants who are more engaged
Limitations of volunteer sampling
- Volunteer bias= asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person
- Reduced generalisability
- These people may try to please the researcher= demand characteristics
When do ethical issues arise?
- what is there to stop ethical issues from arising?
conflict between rights of participants and aims of research
- BPS code of conduct (includes a set of ethical guidelines)
What possible ethical issues may come up during psychological research?
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Protection from harm
- Privacy & confidentiality
Informed consent?
- what is it?
- how can it be dealt with?
(give an example)
- What are some alternative ways of getting consent? (3 ways)
- participants making an informed judgement whether or not to take part
- Making participants aware of the aims & procedures of research, their rights, and what the data will be used for
- e.g. A consent letter which can be signed
Presumptive consent
- If similar group agrees, then consent of original participant is ‘presumed’
Prior general consent
- participants give permission to take part in a number of different studies (including one that will involve deception)
Retrospective consent
- participants asked for their consent (during debriefing) having already taken part in the study
What is meant by deception?
What is meant by protection from harm?
How to deal with deception & protection from harm:
- what should be done at the end of the study?
- what should participants be told in terms of their data?
- what two things should participants be given the right to do during the study?
- when would this be particularly important?
- what may participants require if they have been subject to stress or embarrassment?
Deliberately misleading/withholding information from participants
Participants should not be places at more risk than they would be in their daily lives.
- At end of study, participants should be given full debrief= made aware of the true aims of the investigation + other details not given during the study (e.g. other groups/experimental conditions)
- Should be told what their data will be used for
- Right to withdraw from the study & right to withhold data
- If retrospective consent is a feature of the study
- counselling which researchers should provide
What is meant by privacy & confidentiality?
- what is meant by the right of privacy?
- what is meant by the right of confidentiality?
How to deal confidentiality:
- what should happen to personal details?
- what could participants be referred to as?
- what should participants be reminded of during briefing & debriefing?
Participants have the right to control information about themselves
Participants have the right to have any personal data protected
- personal details should be protected
- Referring to participants using numbers or initials (e.g. especially in case studies - case of HM)
- That their data will be protected throughout the study & not shared with other researchers
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation
What are the aims of piloting?
To check if things work and if not to change change them
- e.g. procedures, materials, stimuli, standardised instructions
What’s the difference between a single-blind procedure and a double-blind procedure?
Single-blind procedure= participants sometimes not told aim of research at beginning of study
Double-blind procedure= neither the participant nor researcher knows the aims of the research
What does doing a single-blind procedure control for?
Confounding effects of demand characteristics
When is a double-blind procedure used most often for?
For drug trials
What’s the difference between naturalistic & controlled observations
- example of controlled observation that I have studied
Natural:
- watching and recording behaviour that take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur
Controlled:
- watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, e.g. one where some variables are managed
(e.g. Ainsworth’s strange situation - specially designed playroom environment & two-way mirror)
Strengths & Limitations of natural observations
- What does it have high of? and why?
- However, what cannot happen? and what does this mean?
Strengths:
- High external validity= findings often generalisable to everyday life= behaviour is naturally occurring in a natural environment
Limitations:
- Cannot be replicated to check reliability, as researcher not in control of variables
Strengths & Limitations of controlled observations
- What is there some control over?
- What can happen to the study?
- However, what does it cause the study to have?
- What findings may it produce?
Strengths:
- Some control over variables, including manipulating variables to observe effects and also control of confounding/extraneous variables
- Can be replicated to check reliability as researcher is in control of variables
Limitations:
- Low external validity= researcher records behaviour in an artificial environment
- May produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to everyday life
Difference between Covert and Overt observations?
Covert:
- Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
Overt:
- Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with tier knowledge and consent
How can Covert observations be ethical?
If the behaviour is happening in public and happening anyway
What must participants involved in an Overt observation do beforehand?
Give informed consent
Strengths & Limitations of Covert observations
- What is there 0 of?
- What does this do to the data gathered?
- However, what can participants not do?
- What problems does this cause?
Strengths:
- No demand characteristics, ensures behaviour is natural
- Increased internal validity of data gathered
Limitations:
- Participants cannot give fully informed consent
- Ethics, people may not want their behaviour to be observed and recorded
Strengths & Limitations of Overt observations
- What is possible to obtain and what does this mean for the study?
- However, what could happen to the behaviour of the participants being observed?
Strengths:
- More ethically acceptable, it is possible to inform participants in advance and obtain informed consent
Limitations:
- Participants being observed may behave according to demand characteristics and may influence their behaviour
What’s the difference between Participant and non-participant observations?
Participant:
- When the observer becomes part of the group they are studying.
Non-participant:
- When the researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner
Strengths & Limitations of participant observations?
- What can the researcher experience?
- What does this increase?
- However, what could happen to the researcher
- what could the researcher lose?
Strengths:
- researcher can experience the situation as the participants do, increases external validity
Limitations:
- Researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity
Strengths & Limitations of non-participant observations?
- What does it allow the researcher to maintain?
- What is there less danger of?
- However, what may be lost compared to participant observations?
- why is this?
Strengths:
- Allow the researcher to maintain objective psychological distance from their participants, so less danger of them adopting a local lifestyle
Limitations:
- May lose the valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying
What is Inter-observer reliability?
- How many researchers should carry out observations?
- what is done to the data?
- what does this make the data recordings?
- at least two researchers
- data from different observers is compared to check for consistency
- more objective and unbiased
What is time sampling? (give an example)
Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame.
Example: A particular time during a football match to record one player’s behaviour, every 30 seconds)
Unstructured observations:
- what does the researcher do?
- why might this be hard?
- what is the data collected rich in?
- when may it be appropriate?
- write down everything they see
- might be too much going on in a single observation to record all
- rich in detail
- when observations are small in scale & involve few participants
Unstructured Vs Structured observations
- what type of data is collected?
- what makes this data good/bad?
- Are there any risks of anything?
Unstructured
- qualitative data= more difficult to record & analyse
- data is rich in detail
- greater risk of observer bias= no behavioural categories
- may only record those behaviours that are more obvious but not not be more useful
Structured
- involve use of behavioural categories= makes recording of data easier & more systematic
- numerical data (most likely)= quantitative
- analysing & comparing data easier
What are behavioural categories?
- what does this allow for?
Participants’ possible behaviours are separated into more specific components
- allows for operationalisation of the behaviour
Difference between event sampling & time sampling?
Event sampling= number of times behaviour occurs
Time sampling= recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
When should event sampling be used?
+ 1 limitation
When target behaviour or event happens quite infrequently and could be missed in time sampling
- if event is too complex= observer may overlook important details
Time sampling
+ 1 strength
+ 1 limitation
+ effective in reducing number of observations that have to be made
- behaviour sampled may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
What are the two types of self-report techniques?
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
Strengths & Limitations of questionnaires
+ coast-effective
+ gather large amounts of data quickly= can be distributed to large amounts of people quickly
+ can be completed when researcher not present
+ data is easy to analyse= closed questions
+ data can be statistically analysed
+ comparisons between groups can be made using graphs and charts
- responses not always truthful
- participants subject to demand characteristics
- response bias may occur (always responding the same way)
Structured Vs Unstructured interviews: Strengths & Limitations
Structured
+ easy to replicate due to standardised format
+ format reduces differences between interviewers
- not possible to deviate from topic/ explain= limits richness of data collected
Unstructured
+ more flexibility= interviewer can follow up important points= gain better insight
- increased risk of interviewer bias
- analysis of data not straightforward= drawing firm conclusions may be difficult
- risk that interviewees may lie= reasons of social desirability
What do correlations illustrate?
strength and direction of an association between two or more co-viabriables
