Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Psychology > RESEARCH METHODS: Year 12 > Flashcards

RESEARCH METHODS: Year 12 Flashcards

1
Q

What is meant by the AIM?

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate

(the purpose of the study)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A clear, precise, testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are the 2 different types of hypothesis?

A

Directional & Non-directional

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What does a directional hypothesis do?

A

States the direction of the difference or relationship

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What does a non-directional hypothesis do?

A

Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

When do researchers tend to use directional hypotheses?

A

When a theory or the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What happens to the Independent variable (IV) and why?

A

Directly manipulated by the researcher (or changes naturally) - so the effect on the DV can be measured

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What happens to the Dependant variable (DV)?

A

Measured by the researcher

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is needed in order to test the effect of the IV?

A

Different experimental conditions

  • this creates a comparison
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the two types of condition called?

A
  1. Control condition
  2. Experimental condition
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is Operationalisation?

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What must be done to the variables to make the hypothesis testable?
The variables must be:

A

Operationalised

(e.g. showing measurements or timing)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What are the 3 research issues?

A
  1. Extraneous variables
  2. Confounding variables
  3. Demand characteristics
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What are Extraneous variables?
+ what do they not do?

A

Any variable, other than the IV, that may affect the dependant variable if not controlled

  • they do not vary systematically with the IV
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Examples of Extraneous variables:

A
  • Age of participants
  • Lighting in the lab
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What are Confounding variables?
+ what do they do? and therefore…?

A

A kind of EV however they DO vary systematically with the IV

  • therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What’s the difference between Extraneous variables and confounding variables?

A

Extraneous variables DO NOT vary systematically with the IV & Confounding variables DO

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What is meant by Investigator effects? + example referring to an energy drink study

A

Any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome

e.g. unconscious behaviour= encouraging greater level of chattiness from energy drink participants

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What is a good example of the power of investigator effects?

A

Leading questions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What is randomisation and what does it do?

A

The use of chance methods to reduce the researchers unconscious biases when designing an investigation
(an attempt to control Investigator effects)

  • minimises the effects of extraneous/confounding variables on the outcome
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What is Standardisation?

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Example of how standardisation could be used in a study:

A

Using standardised instructions that are read to each participant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What are the 3 experimental designs?

A
  • Independent groups
  • Repeated measures
  • Matched pairs
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What are Independent groups?
How many levels of the IV do participants experience?

A

When two separate groups experience two different conditions of the experiment

  • only experience 1 level of the IV
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What are Repeated measures?
How many levels of the IV do participants experience?

A

When all participants experience both conditions of the experiment

  • experience both levels of the IV
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What are matched pairs?

A

When participants are paired together on a variable or variables relevant to the experiment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Example of how participants could be matched in a memory study:

A

IQ

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What happens to the pairs in a matched pairs experimental design?

A

They would be allocated to a different condition of the experiment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Why are pairs in matched pairs allocated to different conditions?
What does it attempt to do?

A

Control for the confounding variable of participant variables

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

LIMITATION: Independent groups
- What’s wrong in terms of the participants in each group?
- How could this interfere with the DV?
- What may these differences act as?
- What may this do to the findings?
- What could researchers do to deal with this problem?

A
  • The participants in the different groups are not the same in terms of participant variables
  • The difference between groups on the DV may be more to do with participant variables than the effects of the IV
  • As a confounding variable
  • May reduce the validity of the findings
  • Use random allocation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

STRENGTHS: Independent groups
- What are they compared to repeated measures?
- What does this increase?
- What is not a problem when using Independent groups?
- Why would this be a problem in repeated measures?

A
  • Less economical as each participant contributes a single result only
  • Time & money spent on recruiting participants
  • Order effects
  • Participants could guess the aim= demand characteristics= findings are less valid
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

LIMITATION: Repeated measures
- What is the biggest issue in terms of participants?
- What may the order of these tasks be? and why is this a problem?
- What do researchers use to deal with this issue? and what does it do? (ABBA)

  • How else might order effects happen?
  • What might this cause the participants to do?
  • What could it lead to in terms of participants behaviour?
A
  • Each participant has to do at least two tasks
  • They may be significant so there are order effects
  • Counterbalancing= half participants take part in condition A then B, other half do B then A
  • when repeating two tasks becomes boring it may cause their results on the second task to worsen or get better due to practice
  • Guess the aim of the study
  • Demand characteristics
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

STRENGTHS: Repeated measures
- What are controlled during a repeated measures experimental design?
- And what does this lead to?
- Why else are repeated measures useful in terms of numbers?

A
  • Participant variables
  • Higher validity
  • Less participants are needed= less time spent recruiting them
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

LIMITATION: Matched pairs
- what does matched pairs fail to do in terms of participants? and why may this be a problem
- what 2 things can matching pairs be?
- what does this mean about the design overall?

A
  • fails to match participants exactly= will still be important differences between them that may affect the DV
  • can be time-consuming and expensive
  • It is less economical than other designs
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

STRENGTHS: Matched pairs
- What is less of a problem and why?

A
  • order effects & demand characteristics= participants only take part in one condition
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What are the 4 types of experiments?

A
  • Laboratory experiments
  • Field experiments
  • Natural experiments
  • Quasi-experiments
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Where are Lab experiments conducted?

A

In highly controlled conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What happens to the IV and DV in Lab experiments?

A

IV is manipulated, effect on DV is measured

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Strengths of Lab experiments

A
  • High control over confounding & extraneous variables
  • so any effect on DV likely to be result of manipulation of the IV
  • High internal validity
  • Can be replicated due to high control
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Limitations of Lab experiments

A
  • May lack generalisability (artificial environment)
  • Low external validity
  • Demand characters may occur
  • Low mundane realism ( may not represent everyday experience)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Where are field experiments conducted?
- where does the researcher normally go?

A

Natural, more everyday setting - the researcher goes to the participants usual environment

42
Q

What happens to the IV in Field experiments?

A

IV manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting

43
Q

Strengths of Field experiments

A
  • Higher mundane realism (environment is more natural)
  • produce more valid and authentic behaviour (participants may be unaware they are being studied)
  • High external validity
44
Q

Limitations of Field experiments

A
  • loss of control of confounding and extraneous variables
    (cause and effect between the IV & DV may be more difficult to establish)
  • Precise replication is often not possible
  • Ethical issues such as consent may cause problems (participants unaware they are being studied)
45
Q

What are natural experiments similar to?
- and why?

A

Lab or field experiments
- researcher measures effect of IV on DV

46
Q

What happens to the IV and DV in natural experiments?
- What has the researcher got no control over?
- What is natural?
- What can the DV be? (2 things)

A
  • Research has no control over IV and cannot change it
  • IV is natural (someone or something else causes the IV to vary, e.g. after a natural disaster)
  • DV may be naturally occurring (e.g exam results) or devised by the experimenter and measured in the field or lab
47
Q

Strengths of natural experiments

A
  • High external validity (involve the study of real-world issues and problems as they happen)
  • Results are more likely applicable & generalisable to real life situations
48
Q

Limitations of natural experiments

A
  • Natural occurring events may be rare, reducing the opportunities for research
  • Causes a lack of generalisability
  • Hard to know if IV affected the DV (participants not randomly allocated to experimental conditions)
  • Research may be conducted in a Lab
  • lack of realism & demand characteristics may be an issue
49
Q

What happens to the IV and DV in Quasi-experiments?
- what is the IV based on?
- what does this mean about the IV?
- what can the IV not do?
- what 2 things could the DV be?

A
  • IV based on an existing difference between people (e.g. gender or age)
  • has not been manipulated
  • IV cannot be changed (e.g. having a phobia)
  • DV may be naturally occurring (e.g. exam results) or may be devised by experimenter and measured in the field or lab.
50
Q

Strengths of Quasi-experiments

A
  • Carried out under controlled conditions (share some strengths of lab experiments)
  • Can be replicated
51
Q

Limitations of Quasi-experiments

A
  • May be confounding variables (cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions)
  • IV is not deliberately changed by researcher so unclear if IV caused any observed change
52
Q

What are the 5 types of sampling techniques?

A
  • Random
  • Systematic
  • Stratified
  • Opportunity
  • Volunteer
53
Q

What is Random sampling?
- what does this give every member of the target group?
- how could this be done?

A
  • an equal chance of being selected for the sample
  • e.g. by assigning a number to each member, and then selecting from the pool at using a random number generator
54
Q

Strengths of Random sampling

A
  • Each member has the same probability of being selected
  • reasonable chance of achieving representative sample
  • Potentially unbiased, enhancing internal validity
55
Q

Limitations of Random sampling

A
  • Difficult and time-consuming to conduct
  • May end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative, reducing its generalisability
  • Could easily turn into a volunteer sample due to selected participants not wanting to take part
56
Q

What is Systematic sampling?
- what is it chosen for?
- how does it differ from random sampling?

A
  • When selecting from a target group, e.g. every fourth person in a list could be used in the sample.
  • does not give an equal chance of selection to each individual in the target group.
57
Q

Strengths of Systematic sampling

A
  • Assuming the list order has been randomised, this method offers an unbiased chance of gaming a representative sample
  • sampling method is objective= once the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen
58
Q

Limitations of Systematic sampling

A
  • Time-consuming
  • Participants may refuse to take part= resulting in a volunteer sample
  • If list has been assembled in any other way, bias may be presented
59
Q

What is stratified sampling?
- what does the sampler do?
- what happens to these sections?
- what should the sample created contain?

A
  • Sampler divides or ‘stratifies’ the target group into sections, each showing a key characteristic which should be present in the final sample
  • each section sampled individually
  • The sample created should contain members from each key characteristic in a proportion representative of the target population
60
Q

Strengths of stratified sampling

A
  • Produces a representative sample= designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population
  • Is generalisable
61
Q

Limitations of stratified sampling

A
  • Stratification is not perfect= the identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different
  • Complete representation of the target population is not possible
  • Takes more time and resources to plan
62
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A
  • Participants who are both accessible & willing to take part are targeted
63
Q

Strengths of opportunity sampling?

A
  • Convenient
  • Less costly in terms of money & time= list of members of the target population is not required
64
Q

Limitations of opportunity sampling?

A
  • suffer from two forms of bias:
    1st= sample is unrepresentative of the target population & is drawn from a very specific area.
  • This reduces its generalisability
    2nd: Researcher bias= researcher has complete control over the selection of participants, so may avoid people they do not like the look of
65
Q

What is volunteer sampling?
- what does the sample consist of & involve?
- how could this be done?

A
  • Sample consists of people who have volunteered to be in the study
  • Involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample
  • e.g. adverts placed in a newspaper
66
Q

Strengths of volunteer sampling

A
  • Easy to collect
  • less time-consuming, requires minimal input from the researcher
  • Researcher ends up with participants who are more engaged
67
Q

Limitations of volunteer sampling

A
  • Volunteer bias= asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person
  • Reduced generalisability
  • These people may try to please the researcher= demand characteristics
68
Q

When do ethical issues arise?

  • what is there to stop ethical issues from arising?
A

conflict between rights of participants and aims of research

  • BPS code of conduct (includes a set of ethical guidelines)
69
Q

What possible ethical issues may come up during psychological research?

A
  • Informed consent
  • Deception
  • Protection from harm
  • Privacy & confidentiality
70
Q

Informed consent?
- what is it?
- how can it be dealt with?
(give an example)
- What are some alternative ways of getting consent? (3 ways)

A
  • participants making an informed judgement whether or not to take part
  • Making participants aware of the aims & procedures of research, their rights, and what the data will be used for
  • e.g. A consent letter which can be signed

Presumptive consent
- If similar group agrees, then consent of original participant is ‘presumed’

Prior general consent
- participants give permission to take part in a number of different studies (including one that will involve deception)

Retrospective consent
- participants asked for their consent (during debriefing) having already taken part in the study

71
Q

What is meant by deception?
What is meant by protection from harm?

How to deal with deception & protection from harm:
- what should be done at the end of the study?
- what should participants be told in terms of their data?
- what two things should participants be given the right to do during the study?
- when would this be particularly important?
- what may participants require if they have been subject to stress or embarrassment?

A

Deliberately misleading/withholding information from participants

Participants should not be places at more risk than they would be in their daily lives.

  • At end of study, participants should be given full debrief= made aware of the true aims of the investigation + other details not given during the study (e.g. other groups/experimental conditions)
  • Should be told what their data will be used for
  • Right to withdraw from the study & right to withhold data
  • If retrospective consent is a feature of the study
  • counselling which researchers should provide
72
Q

What is meant by privacy & confidentiality?
- what is meant by the right of privacy?
- what is meant by the right of confidentiality?

How to deal confidentiality:
- what should happen to personal details?
- what could participants be referred to as?
- what should participants be reminded of during briefing & debriefing?

A

Participants have the right to control information about themselves

Participants have the right to have any personal data protected

  • personal details should be protected
  • Referring to participants using numbers or initials (e.g. especially in case studies - case of HM)
  • That their data will be protected throughout the study & not shared with other researchers
73
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation

74
Q

What are the aims of piloting?

A

To check if things work and if not to change change them
- e.g. procedures, materials, stimuli, standardised instructions

75
Q

What’s the difference between a single-blind procedure and a double-blind procedure?

A

Single-blind procedure= participants sometimes not told aim of research at beginning of study

Double-blind procedure= neither the participant nor researcher knows the aims of the research

76
Q

What does doing a single-blind procedure control for?

A

Confounding effects of demand characteristics

77
Q

When is a double-blind procedure used most often for?

A

For drug trials

78
Q

What’s the difference between naturalistic & controlled observations

  • example of controlled observation that I have studied
A

Natural:
- watching and recording behaviour that take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur

Controlled:
- watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, e.g. one where some variables are managed
(e.g. Ainsworth’s strange situation - specially designed playroom environment & two-way mirror)

79
Q

Strengths & Limitations of natural observations
- What does it have high of? and why?
- However, what cannot happen? and what does this mean?

A

Strengths:
- High external validity= findings often generalisable to everyday life= behaviour is naturally occurring in a natural environment

Limitations:
- Cannot be replicated to check reliability, as researcher not in control of variables

80
Q

Strengths & Limitations of controlled observations
- What is there some control over?
- What can happen to the study?
- However, what does it cause the study to have?
- What findings may it produce?

A

Strengths:
- Some control over variables, including manipulating variables to observe effects and also control of confounding/extraneous variables
- Can be replicated to check reliability as researcher is in control of variables

Limitations:
- Low external validity= researcher records behaviour in an artificial environment
- May produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to everyday life

81
Q

Difference between Covert and Overt observations?

A

Covert:
- Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

Overt:
- Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with tier knowledge and consent

82
Q

How can Covert observations be ethical?

A

If the behaviour is happening in public and happening anyway

83
Q

What must participants involved in an Overt observation do beforehand?

A

Give informed consent

84
Q

Strengths & Limitations of Covert observations
- What is there 0 of?
- What does this do to the data gathered?
- However, what can participants not do?
- What problems does this cause?

A

Strengths:
- No demand characteristics, ensures behaviour is natural
- Increased internal validity of data gathered

Limitations:
- Participants cannot give fully informed consent
- Ethics, people may not want their behaviour to be observed and recorded

85
Q

Strengths & Limitations of Overt observations
- What is possible to obtain and what does this mean for the study?
- However, what could happen to the behaviour of the participants being observed?

A

Strengths:
- More ethically acceptable, it is possible to inform participants in advance and obtain informed consent

Limitations:
- Participants being observed may behave according to demand characteristics and may influence their behaviour

86
Q

What’s the difference between Participant and non-participant observations?

A

Participant:
- When the observer becomes part of the group they are studying.

Non-participant:
- When the researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner

87
Q

Strengths & Limitations of participant observations?
- What can the researcher experience?
- What does this increase?
- However, what could happen to the researcher
- what could the researcher lose?

A

Strengths:
- researcher can experience the situation as the participants do, increases external validity

Limitations:
- Researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity

88
Q

Strengths & Limitations of non-participant observations?
- What does it allow the researcher to maintain?
- What is there less danger of?
- However, what may be lost compared to participant observations?
- why is this?

A

Strengths:
- Allow the researcher to maintain objective psychological distance from their participants, so less danger of them adopting a local lifestyle

Limitations:
- May lose the valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying

89
Q

What is Inter-observer reliability?
- How many researchers should carry out observations?
- what is done to the data?
- what does this make the data recordings?

A
  • at least two researchers
  • data from different observers is compared to check for consistency
  • more objective and unbiased
90
Q

What is time sampling? (give an example)

A

Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame.

Example: A particular time during a football match to record one player’s behaviour, every 30 seconds)

91
Q

Unstructured observations:
- what does the researcher do?
- why might this be hard?
- what is the data collected rich in?
- when may it be appropriate?

A
  • write down everything they see
  • might be too much going on in a single observation to record all
  • rich in detail
  • when observations are small in scale & involve few participants
92
Q

Unstructured Vs Structured observations
- what type of data is collected?
- what makes this data good/bad?
- Are there any risks of anything?

A

Unstructured
- qualitative data= more difficult to record & analyse
- data is rich in detail
- greater risk of observer bias= no behavioural categories
- may only record those behaviours that are more obvious but not not be more useful

Structured
- involve use of behavioural categories= makes recording of data easier & more systematic
- numerical data (most likely)= quantitative
- analysing & comparing data easier

93
Q

What are behavioural categories?
- what does this allow for?

A

Participants’ possible behaviours are separated into more specific components

  • allows for operationalisation of the behaviour
94
Q

Difference between event sampling & time sampling?

A

Event sampling= number of times behaviour occurs

Time sampling= recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame

95
Q

When should event sampling be used?
+ 1 limitation

A

When target behaviour or event happens quite infrequently and could be missed in time sampling

  • if event is too complex= observer may overlook important details
96
Q

Time sampling
+ 1 strength
+ 1 limitation

A

+ effective in reducing number of observations that have to be made

  • behaviour sampled may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
97
Q

What are the two types of self-report techniques?

A
  1. Questionnaires
  2. Interviews
98
Q

Strengths & Limitations of questionnaires

A

+ coast-effective
+ gather large amounts of data quickly= can be distributed to large amounts of people quickly
+ can be completed when researcher not present
+ data is easy to analyse= closed questions
+ data can be statistically analysed
+ comparisons between groups can be made using graphs and charts

  • responses not always truthful
  • participants subject to demand characteristics
  • response bias may occur (always responding the same way)
99
Q

Structured Vs Unstructured interviews: Strengths & Limitations

A

Structured
+ easy to replicate due to standardised format
+ format reduces differences between interviewers
- not possible to deviate from topic/ explain= limits richness of data collected

Unstructured
+ more flexibility= interviewer can follow up important points= gain better insight
- increased risk of interviewer bias
- analysis of data not straightforward= drawing firm conclusions may be difficult
- risk that interviewees may lie= reasons of social desirability

100
Q

What do correlations illustrate?

A

strength and direction of an association between two or more co-viabriables

101
Q
A

Psychology (31 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions