Gender Flashcards
What is the definition of sex?
- what’s its shortened answer?
- what’s it determined by?
- what do these influence?
(give 2 examples)
The biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy
- A person’s biological status as either male or female
- Determined by one pair of sex chromosomes
- Influence hormonal & anatomy differences
(e.g. reproductive organs, hair growth)
What’s the chromosome pair for males?
XY
What’s the chromosome pair for females?
XX
What is meant by gender?
- what’s its shortened answer?
- what does this involve?
- what 2 things are these heavily influenced by?
The psychological, social and cultural differences between boys/men and girls/women including attitudes, behaviours and social roles
- A person’s psychological status as either masculine or feminine
- Involves all the attitudes, roles and behaviours that we associate with ‘being a man’ or ‘being a woman’
- Heavily influenced by social norms & cultural expectations
What is sex and what is it a result of?
What is gender at least partly determined by and what is it therefore due to?
- Sex is innate and the result of nature
- Gender is at least partly environmentally determined and therefore due to nature
What do most psychologists now recognise ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ as?
Distinct separate concepts
What argument is there about sex?
An individual’s sex is innate and not ‘assigned’ at birth, it cannot be changed
What argument is there about gender?
- gender is ‘assigned’ because it is a social construct rather than a biological fact
- so because it is at least partly determined by nurture, it is not ‘fixed’
- but rather is fluid and open to change
- so a person may become ‘more masculine’ or ‘more feminine’ depending on the social context they are in and the norms and expectations associated with it
Gender dysphoria:
- for most people, what do their biological ‘sex’ and gender identity do?
- what is meant by gender dysphoria?
- what may some who experience this choose to do? in order to what?
- Correspond
- When a person’s biologically prescribed sex does not reflect the way they feel inside & the gender they identify themselves as being
- May choose to have gender reassignment surgery in order to bring their sexual identity in line with their gender identity
What is meant by sex-role stereotype?
- what are they communicated or transmitted throughout?
- who may reinforce them?
- what do they lead to?
A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for men and women in a given society or social group
- Throughout society
- Parents, peers, the media & other institutions like schools
- Lead to sexist assumptions being formed
What is meant by androgyny?
Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s personality
What does it mean to be ‘androgynous’ within our society?
- what industries is this ‘look’ often seen in?
To have the appearance of someone who cannot clearly be identified as a man or a woman
- fashion and music industries
Who developed a way to measure androgyny?
- what is it called?
Bem
- The Bem Sex Role Inventory
What did Bem suggest and why?
(give an example)
That high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being
- It’s better to be androgynous in today’s society as men and women need to be adaptable to a range of situations
(e.g. willing to share all types of jobs)
What did Bem say about non-androgynous people?
They would find it difficult to adapt because they have a narrower range of traits to draw on
What does NOT qualify as androgynous?
- why?
- give an example
An over-representation of opposite-gender characteristics
- as they do not exhibit a balance of masculine and feminine traits
e.g. a women who is very masculine or a man who is very feminine
The Bem Sex Role Inventory:
- what does the scale present?
- what do respondents rate themselves on?
- what are the scores then classified on?
- what are these?
- 20 ‘masculine’ traits
- 20 ‘feminine’ traits
- 20 ‘neutral’ traits
- a seven-point rating scale for each 60 traits
1= ‘never true of me’
7= ‘always true of me’ - classified on the basis of two dimensions: masculinity-femininity & androgynous-undifferentiated
EVALUATION: BSRI - Strength + CA (PCAEL)
P: Quantitative approach
P: Androgyny is measured quantitatively
CA: However researchers have criticised this approach to measuring gender identity seeing qualitative methods as a better way of analysing gender
E: Bem’s numerical approach is useful for research purposes when necessary
e.g. to quantify a dependant variable
L: Suggests that both quantitative and qualitative approaches may be useful for studying gender identity
What does Spence argue about gender?
(criticism of the BSRI)
There is more to gender than a set of behaviours typical of one gender or the other
EVALUATION: BSRI - Limitation (PEEL)
P: Self-awareness
P: People may not have insight into their degree of masculinity, femininity or androgyny
E: Asking people to rate themselves on a questionnaire relies on people having a understanding of their personality & behaviour that they may not have
E:
- Questionnaires’ scoring system is subjective
- people’s application of the seven-point scale may differ
L: Suggests the BSRI may not be an objective, scientific way of assessing masculinity, femininity or androgyny
EVALUATION: BSRI - Strength + CA (PEEL)
P: Valid & Reliable
P: At time it was developed, it appeared to be a valid & reliable way of measuring androgyny
E:
- scale developed by asking 50 male & 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how much they represented ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’
- traits scored highest in each category became the 20 masculine & 20 feminine traits on the scale
- BSRI piloted with over 1000 students
- results broadly corresponded with participants own description of their gender identity (demonstrating validity)
L: Gives us reason to believe the test was both valid and reliable
CA:
P: BSRI developed over 40yrs ago
E:
- behaviours regarded as ‘typical’ and ‘acceptable’ in relation to gender have changed
- Bem’s scale is made up of stereotypical ideas of masculinity & femininity that may be outdated
- scale was also devised using people all from the United States
E:
- Notions of maleness and femaleness in this country may not be shared across al cultures and societies
L: suggests that BSRI may lack temporal validity & generalisability, and may not be a suitable measure of gender identity today
The role of chromosomes:
- what are they made from?
- what are genes? and what do they determine?
- how many chromosomes are there in the human body & how many pairs?
- what do the last pair do?
- what chromosome does an egg cell carry?
- what chromosome does sperm carry?
- what is the baby’s sex determined by?
- what does the Y chromosome carry?
- what does this gene cause and produce?
- made from DNA
- short sections of DNA that determine the characteristics of a living thing
- 46 chromosomes & 23 pairs
- 23rd pair determine biological sex
Egg cell= X chromosome
Sperm cell= X or Y chromosome - determined by the sperm that fertilises the egg cell (e.g. female if X and male if Y)
- Y chromosome carries a gene called ‘SRY’
- causes testes to develop in an XY embryo & produce androgens: male sex hormones
What is the chromosome pattern for females?
XX
What is the chromosome pattern for males?
XY
The role of hormones:
- what does gender development come about through?
- what do the hormones in the womb act upon and cause?
- what happens at puberty?
(give an example)
- what do males and female produce many of the same of? but what’s the catch?
- what’s the primary importance in male development? (give an example)
- the influence of hormones
- act upon brain development and cause development of reproductive organs
- a burst of hormonal activity triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. pubic hair)
- hormones but in different concentrations
- the development of a number of hormones called androgens
(e.g. testosterone)
What are the 3 main hormones?
- Testosterone
- Oestrogen
- Oxytocin
Testosterone:
- what type of hormone is it?
- Is it present in women?
- what does it control?
- what happens if a genetic male produces no testosterone during this development?
- what happens if a genetic female produces high levels of testosterone during this development?
- what are high levels of testosterone linked to according to the evolutionary explanation? and what does it allow?
- A male hormone
- yes, in small quantities
- controls development of male sex organs during foetal development
- no male sex organs appear
- male sex organs may appear
- aggression because it is adaptive and allows males to compete for the opportunity to mate with a fertile female
Oestrogen:
- what type hormone is it?
- what does it determine?
- what does it cause women to experience during menstruation alongside the physical changes?
- what 2 things is this referred to as?
- what do some researchers dispute the existence of this as?
- A female hormone
- determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
- causes women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their menstrual cycle
- referred to as PMT or PMS when these effects become a diagnosable disorder
- some researchers dispute the existence of PMS as a viable medical category
Oxytocin:
- who typically produce this hormone and in what amount compared to the other gender?
- what is this a result of?
- what does this hormone stimulate and make possible?
- what hormone does it reduce?
- what does this hormone facilitate?
- due to this what is it referred to as?
- what quantities is this hormone released in during labour and after childbirth?
- what does it make mothers feel?
- the fact that men produce less of this hormone has fueled what stereotype in the past?
- however, what does evidence suggest now?
- women in much larger amounts than men
- a result of giving birth
- stimulates lactation making it possible for mothers to breastfeed their children
- the stress hormone cortisol
- facilitates bonding
- referred to as the ‘love hormone’
- massive quantities
- makes mothers feel ‘in love’ with their baby
- the stereotype that men are less interested in intimacy and closeness within a relationship
- suggests that both sexes produce oxytocin in roughly equal amounts during sexual activities like kissing & sexual intercourse
EVALUATION (strength) - Evidence for testosterone:
How does Wang et al’s research show evidence for the role of sex hormones in gender development even in mature males
- what did the study confirm?
- what is the condition identified called and what is it caused by?
- what is the PROCEDURE of this study?
- what are the RESULTS of this study?
- what does this study show?
Their is a link between increased testosterone & sexual behaviour
- Male hypogonadism= condition caused by man’s testes failing to produce normal levels of male sex hormone, testosterone
PROCEDURE:
- Wang et al gave 227 hypogonadal men testosterone therapy for 180 days
- changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function and libido (sex drive) all monitored across the period
RESULTS:
- Testosterone replacement improved sexual function, libido and mood, and significant increases in muscle strength were observed within the sample
- study shows that testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on male sexual arousal, as well as physical development, in adulthood
EVALUATION (limitation/CA) - Other evidence on effect of testosterone less convincing:
- what type of study was this?
- who conducted this study?
- what is the PROCEDURE of this study?
- what are the RESULTS of this study?
- what does this study suggest?
- however, what does this not challenge?
- Double-blind, placebo study
- O’Connor et al
PROCEDURE:
- Increased testosterone levels in healthy young men
RESULTS:
- no significant increases in the interactional (e.g. frequency of secual intercourse) or non-interactional (e.g. sex-drive) components of sexual behaviour in participants
- men involved in study experience no change in their aggression or anger levels during investigation either
- suggests that additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour
- however, does not challenge role of testosterone in early development
EVALUATION:
(limitation of biological accounts) - Social factors ignored (PEEL)
P: They ignore role of social factors in gender-related behaviour
E: Hofstede claimed gender roles around world= much more a consequence of social norms than biology
E:
- researchers believe that masculinity and femininity= whether whole cultures are individualistic or collectivist
- Countries that place individual competition & independence above needs of community= more masculine in their outlook (according to Hofstede)
(e.g. would include advanced capitalist societies such as US and UK)
- meaning traditional masculine traits will be more highly valued within these countries
L:
- challenges biological explanations of gender behaviour
- suggests social factors may be more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes
EVALUATION:
(limitation of biological explanations) - Reductionist (PEEL)
P: Biological explanations of gender are reductionist
E:
- accounts that reduce gender to level of chromosomes and hormones been accused of ignoring alternative explanations
- cognitive approach would draw attention to influence of thought processes
(e.g. shema)
E:
- even though changes in thought processes may come about through maturation of the developing brain, they are not adequately explained by the biological model
- In addition, the psychodynamic approach would acknowledge maturation as a factor but point to the importance of childhood experiences such as interaction within the family
L: suggests that gender is more complex than its biological influences alone
Klinefelter’s syndrome:
- what is it an example of?
- who and how many people does it affect?
- who are the people that have this condition?
- who do they have the appearance of?
- what do they have an addition of?
- so what is their sex chromosome structure?
- how does diagnosis often come about?
- An atypical sex chromosome pattern
- affects about 1 in 600 males
- biological males
- with the anatomical appearance of a male
- have an additional X chromosome
- XXY
- diagnosis often comes about accidentally via a medical examination for some unrelated condition
Physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome:
- reduced body hair when compared to an XY male
- may be some breast development at puberty
- ‘softening’ or ‘rounding’ of body contours
- individuals with the syndrome tend to have long gangly limbs
- underdeveloped genitals
- may have problems with coordination & general clumsiness
- susceptible to health problems that are usually more commonly found in females (e.g. breast cancer)
Psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome:
- Klinefelter’s syndrome linked to poorly developed language skills & reading ability
- Individuals tend to be passive , shy and lack interest in sexual activity
- Many tend to not respond well to stressful situations
- Often may exhibit problems with ‘executive functions’ such as memory & problem-solving
Turner’s syndrome:
- who and how many people does this affect?
- what is it caused by?
- what does this mean for the number of chromosomes the affected individual will have?
- approx 1 in 5000 biological females
- caused by an absence of one of the two allocated X chromosomes
(referred to as XO) - affected individual will have 45 chromosomes rather than the usual 46
Physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome:
- Individuals do not have a menstrual cycle as their ovaries do not develop meaning they are infertile
- do not develop breasts and instead have a broad ‘shield’ chest
- Turner’s syndrome is associated with low set ears and a ‘webbed’ neck
- high waist-to-hip ratio (hips not bigger than waist)
- Adults with Turner’s syndrome are physically immature as they tend to retain appearance of prepubescent girls
Psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome:
- higher than average reading ability
- performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks often lower than average
- socially immature
- trouble relating to their peers
- experience difficulty ‘fitting in’
EVALUATION: Nature-Nurture debate - Strength of research into atypical sex chromosome syndromes (PEEL)
P: It contributes to the Nature-Nurture debate
E:
- comparing people with these syndromes with chromosome-typical individuals= possible to see psychological & behavioural differences between the two groups
(e.g. people with Turner’s syndrome tend to have higher verbal ability than ‘typical girls’)
E:
- logically inferred that these differences have biological basis= so are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure
L: supports view that innate ‘nature’ influences have powerful effect on psychology and behaviour
EVALUATION: Nature-Nurture debate - CA of research into atypical sex chromosome syndromes (PEEL)
P: Issues with jumping to conclusions
E:
- relationship between atypical chromosomal patterns associated with Klinefelter’s & Turner’s syndrome and differences in behaviour seen in these people is not casual
- environmental and social influences= more responsible for behavioural differences observed
e.g. social immaturity seen in females with Turner’s syndrome may arise from fact that they are treated ‘immaturely’ by people around them
E:
Parents, teachers and others may react to the prepubescent appearance of people with Turner’s in a way that encourages immature behaviour
- may have indirect impact upon their performance at school
L:
- shows it could be wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences in people with atypical sex chromosome patterns are due to nature
EVALUATION:
(limitation of biological explanations) - Reductionist (PEEL)
P: real-world application
E:
- Australian study of 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome= those identified and treated from very young age experienced significant benefits (e.g. managing the syndrome) compared to those diagnosed in adulthood
E:
- continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns= likely to lead to earlier, more accurate diagnosis of Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndrome
- as well as more positive outcomes in the future
L: suggests that increased awareness of atypical chromosome patterns does have useful real-world application
EVALUATION: (limitation of description of Klinefelter’s syndrome) - Sampling Issue (PEEL)
