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Psychology Paper 2 > Research Methods Knowledge > Flashcards

Research Methods Knowledge Flashcards

1
Q

What ethical issues arise in psychology?

A

Conflict between the rights of participants and the needs of researchers.

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2
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Making participants aware of the aims, procedures, and their rights regarding participation.

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3
Q

True or False: Participants should feel coerced to take part in research.

A

False

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4
Q

What is deception in psychological research?

A

Withholding information or being deliberately dishonest with participants.

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5
Q

What does protection from harm entail?

A

Participants should not be placed at more risk than in their daily lives and should be protected from physical and psychological harm.

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6
Q

What is confidentiality?

A

Participants’ rights to have their personal data protected.

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7
Q

What is the BPS Code of Ethics?

A

A set of ethical guidelines that researchers must follow when conducting research.

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8
Q

What does presumptive consent involve?

A

Getting consent from a similar group rather than the participants themselves.

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9
Q

What is prior general consent?

A

Participants give permission for multiple studies, including those that may involve deception.

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10
Q

What is retrospective consent?

A

Participants are asked for consent during debriefing after already participating in the study.

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11
Q

What must be included in a debrief after a study?

A

The true aims of the investigation, details not provided earlier, and information on data usage.

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12
Q

True or False: Participants have the right to withdraw their data.

A

True

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13
Q

What is the definition of population in research?

A

The large group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.

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14
Q

What is a sample in research?

A

A smaller group selected from the population for investigation.

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15
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.

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16
Q

List one strength of random sampling.

A
  • Potentially unbiased
  • Enhances internal validity
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17
Q

What is a limitation of random sampling?

A

It is difficult and time-consuming to conduct.

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18
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Every nth member of the target population is selected from a sampling frame.

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19
Q

List one strength of systematic sampling.

A
  • Objective selection process
  • Reduces researcher bias
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20
Q

What is a limitation of systematic sampling?

A

It can be difficult and time-consuming to conduct.

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21
Q

Fill in the blank: The right to _______ refers to participants controlling information about themselves.

A

[privacy]

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22
Q

What is the target population?

A

A subset of the general population that a researcher is interested in.

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23
Q

What is the role of ethics committees?

A

To implement ethical guidelines and assess research proposals’ ethical acceptability.

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24
Q

What psychological harm might participants experience?

A
  • Embarrassment
  • Feeling inadequate
  • Undue stress or pressure
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25
Q

True or False: Participants’ data must be shared with other researchers.

A

False

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26
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

A sampling method where the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within the target population

Examples of sub-groups include age or gender.

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27
Q

What must a researcher do before conducting stratified sampling?

A

Identify different sub-groups within the target population and calculate needed proportions for a representative sample.

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28
Q

What is the strength of stratified sampling?

A

Produces a representative sample that allows for generalisation of findings.

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29
Q

List two limitations of stratified sampling.

A
  • Identified strata may not reflect all differences among people
  • It is time-consuming and difficult to conduct.
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30
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Selecting anyone who happens to be willing or available to take part in the study.

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31
Q

What is a strength of opportunity sampling?

A

It is convenient and less costly in terms of time and money.

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32
Q

What is a limitation of opportunity sampling?

A

Samples are unrepresentative of the target population, leading to findings that cannot be generalised.

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33
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

A method where an advert is produced, and individuals self-select themselves to take part.

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34
Q

What is a strength of volunteer sampling?

A

It requires minimal input from the researcher, making it less time-consuming.

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35
Q

What is a limitation of volunteer sampling?

A

Volunteer bias may attract a certain profile of person, reducing the representativeness of the sample.

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36
Q

What is the purpose of formulating a hypothesis in research?

A

To predict a statistically significant effect of an independent variable (IV) on a dependent variable (DV) or a significant relationship between variables.

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37
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship, using terms like more, less, higher, or lower.

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38
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis that does not specify the direction of the difference or relationship.

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39
Q

Fill in the blank: In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the _______ variable and measures the effect on the _______ variable.

A

[independent], [dependent]

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40
Q

What is the control condition in an experiment?

A

The condition that provides a baseline measure of behaviour without manipulation of the IV.

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41
Q

What is the experimental condition in an experiment?

A

The condition that involves the manipulation of the independent variable.

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42
Q

Define extraneous variables.

A

Any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if not controlled.

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43
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Extraneous variables that vary systematically with the IV, obscuring the true source of change in the DV.

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44
Q

List four examples of confounding variables in a study measuring calorie intake on weight.

A
  • Metabolic rate
  • Age
  • Physical activity
  • Height
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45
Q

What are demand characteristics in research?

A

Clues that participants use to interpret the experimental situation, which may lead to altered behaviour.

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46
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Any impact of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome, whether conscious or unconscious.

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47
Q

What is a single blind procedure?

A

A procedure where participants do not know which condition they are taking part in.

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48
Q

What is a double blind procedure?

A

A procedure where neither the participants nor the investigator know which condition the participants are in.

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49
Q

What is randomisation in research?

A

The use of chance to control for the effects of investigator bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.

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50
Q

What is the purpose of standardisation in research?

A

To ensure all participants are subject to the same environment, information, and experience to reduce extraneous variables.

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51
Q

What is experimental design?

A

The way in which participants are used in experiments, including how they are arranged in relation to different experimental conditions.

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52
Q

What is a sample in experimental design?

A

A selection of participants from the target population that represent the population.

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53
Q

What is Independent Groups Design?

A

A design where two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment.

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54
Q

How are participants allocated in Independent Groups Design?

A

Through random allocation (lottery method) to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to a group.

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55
Q

What is Repeated Measures Design?

A

A design where all participants experience both conditions of the experiment.

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56
Q

What are order effects in Repeated Measures Design?

A

Effects that can occur due to the order in which conditions are experienced by participants.

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57
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

A technique to reduce order effects by having half of the participants experience conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order.

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58
Q

What is Matched Pairs Design?

A

A design where participants are paired on relevant variables, and one from each pair is allocated to different conditions.

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59
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment.

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60
Q

What is a strength of lab experiments?

A

High control over confounding and extraneous variables, increasing internal validity.

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61
Q

What is a limitation of lab experiments?

A

They may lack generalizability due to the artificial environment, resulting in low ecological validity.

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62
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment where the IV is manipulated in a natural, everyday setting.

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63
Q

What is a strength of field experiments?

A

Higher ecological validity and mundane realism due to the natural environment.

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64
Q

What is a limitation of field experiments?

A

Loss of control over confounding and extraneous variables, making it difficult to establish cause and effect.

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65
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

An experiment where the researcher has no control over the IV, which varies due to external factors.

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66
Q

What is a strength of natural experiments?

A

They provide opportunities for research that may not be possible for practical or ethical reasons.

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67
Q

What is a limitation of natural experiments?

A

Naturally occurring events may happen rarely, limiting research opportunities and generalizability.

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68
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

An experiment where the IV is based on an existing difference between people, such as age or gender.

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69
Q

What is a strength of quasi experiments?

A

They are often conducted under controlled conditions, sharing strengths with laboratory experiments.

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70
Q

What is a limitation of quasi experiments?

A

They cannot randomly allocate participants, leading to potential confounding variables.

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71
Q

Fill in the blank: In Independent Groups Design, participants are assigned to groups by _______.

A

random allocation

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72
Q

True or False: Counterbalancing eliminates order effects.

A

False

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73
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation.

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74
Q

What is the main purpose of a pilot study?

A

To road test the procedure and check if the investigation runs smoothly.

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75
Q

True or False: Pilot studies are only used in experimental studies.

A

False

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76
Q

How does a pilot study benefit self-report methods?

A

It helps to try out questions in advance and remove or reword ambiguous ones.

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77
Q

What role does a pilot study play in observational studies?

A

It checks coding systems before the real investigation is undertaken.

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78
Q

List three strengths of pilot studies.

A
  • Saves time and money
  • Valid data collection
  • Provides practice for researchers
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79
Q

What is a limitation of pilot studies regarding participants?

A

More participants are required for the main study.

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80
Q

What could be a downside of a pilot study being shared publicly?

A

Future participants may experience demand characteristics.

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81
Q

What are observations in research?

A

A non-experimental method to study observable behaviour.

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82
Q

What are the three categories of observations?

A
  • Controlled vs. Naturalistic
  • Overt vs. Covert
  • Participant vs. Non-participant
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83
Q

Describe naturalistic observations.

A

They take place in the setting where the target behaviour usually occurs.

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84
Q

List a strength and a limitation of naturalistic observations.

A
  • Strength: Higher external validity
  • Limitation: Difficult to replicate due to lack of control
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85
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

An observation with some control over variables.

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86
Q

Give an example of a researcher who used controlled observation.

A

Mary Ainsworth in her Strange Situation studies.

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87
Q

True or False: Controlled observations have higher ecological validity.

A

False

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88
Q

What characterizes covert observation?

A

Participants are unaware they are being observed.

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89
Q

List one strength and one limitation of covert observations.

A
  • Strength: Reduces demand characteristics
  • Limitation: Ethical concerns regarding privacy
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90
Q

What is overt observation?

A

Participants know they are being observed and have given consent.

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91
Q

What is a potential drawback of overt observation?

A

Participants may alter their behaviour due to awareness of being observed.

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92
Q

What is participant observation?

A

The observer becomes part of the group being studied.

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93
Q

List one strength and one limitation of participant observation.

A
  • Strength: Increased insight into participants’ lives
  • Limitation: Loss of objectivity
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94
Q

Define non-participant observations.

A

Researchers remain separate from those they are studying.

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95
Q

What is a strength of non-participant observation?

A

Increased objectivity due to psychological distance.

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96
Q

What is a limitation of non-participant observation?

A

Decreased validity due to being too far removed from participants.

97
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

It is a method where the researcher writes down everything they see, producing detailed accounts of behavior.

98
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

It simplifies target behaviors into behavioral categories for systematic recording.

99
Q

Define behavioral categories.

A

They are sets of defined and observable behaviors used to organize observations.

100
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Counting the number of times a specific behavior occurs in a target individual or group.

101
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Recording behavior within a pre-established time frame.

102
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

It checks the consistency of data recorded by different observers to reduce bias.

103
Q

How is inter-observer reliability calculated?

A

By correlating observations made by different observers, with a correlation coefficient above +0.8 indicating good reliability.

104
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A self-report technique consisting of written questions to assess thoughts and experiences.

105
Q

What are open questions?

A

Questions that allow respondents to answer in any way they wish, producing qualitative data.

106
Q

What are closed questions?

A

Questions that offer a fixed set of responses, often producing quantitative data.

107
Q

What is a Likert scale?

A

A scale where respondents indicate their agreement with a statement using a range of points.

108
Q

What should be avoided in question design?

A

Overuse of jargon, emotive language, leading questions, double-barrelled questions, and double negatives.

109
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

Interviews that consist of a predetermined set of questions asked in a fixed order.

110
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

An interview that resembles a conversation without set questions, allowing free-flowing interaction.

111
Q

What is a case study?

A

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, institution, or event.

112
Q

What type of data is typically collected in case studies?

A

Qualitative data, often using interviews, observations, and questionnaires.

113
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A method of observational research studying people indirectly through their communications.

114
Q

What is coding in content analysis?

A

Reading data and identifying instances of chosen categories, often creating a tally.

115
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

An inductive approach to analyzing qualitative data, focusing on identifying recurrent themes.

116
Q

What does a positive correlation indicate?

A

As one co-variable increases, the other co-variable also increases.

117
Q

What does a negative correlation indicate?

A

As one co-variable increases, the other co-variable decreases.

118
Q

What is a zero correlation?

A

Indicates no relationship between two co-variables.

119
Q

What is the range of correlation coefficients?

A

From -1 to +1, where + indicates positive correlation and - indicates negative correlation.

120
Q

What is the difference between correlations and experiments?

A

Correlations do not manipulate variables, while experiments involve manipulation of the independent variable.

121
Q

Fill in the blank: The more caffeine people drink, the more ________.

A

anxiety.

122
Q

Fill in the blank: The more caffeine someone drinks, the less ________.

A

sleep.

123
Q

Fill in the blank: A strong correlation coefficient ranges from ________ to ________.

A

0.8 to 1.

124
Q

What does a researcher do in an experiment?

A

Manipulates the independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV)

This allows for the assumption that changes in the DV are caused by the IV.

125
Q

What is the main difference between correlations and experiments?

A

Correlations do not involve manipulation of variables, making it impossible to establish cause and effect

In experiments, the manipulation of the IV allows for causal conclusions.

126
Q

What can be assumed when a strong correlation is found between two co-variables?

A

It cannot be assumed that one co-variable is causing the other

Correlation does not imply causation.

127
Q

What are intervening variables?

A

Other variables that could influence the association between two co-variables

These must be considered when explaining relationships.

128
Q

Give an example of a strong relationship that may not imply causation.

A

The relationship between caffeine and anxiety levels

Other factors like personality type, job stress, or personal problems could influence this relationship.

129
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Qualitative data is expressed in words rather than numbers or statistics, often describing thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

130
Q

Give examples of qualitative data.

A
  • Transcript from an interview
  • Extract from a diary
  • Notes from a counseling session
131
Q

What type of research methods collect qualitative data?

A
  • Interviews
  • Unstructured observations
  • Diary extracts
132
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Quantitative data is expressed numerically and can be statistically analyzed.

133
Q

What type of research methods collect quantitative data?

A
  • Experiments
  • Closed questions from questionnaires
  • Interviews
134
Q

True or False: Qualitative data is always better than quantitative data.

A

False.

135
Q

What is primary data?

A

Primary data refers to original data collected specifically for the study by the researcher.

136
Q

What are some methods of collecting primary data?

A
  • Experiments
  • Questionnaires
  • Interviews
  • Observations
137
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Secondary data refers to data collected by someone else and not specifically for the current study.

138
Q

Give examples of secondary data.

A
  • Journal articles
  • Books
  • Websites
  • Government statistical information
139
Q

What is a meta-analysis?

A

A meta-analysis uses secondary data from multiple studies to produce a joint conclusion.

140
Q

What are measures of central tendency?

A

Measures of central tendency are averages that provide information about the most typical values in a data set.

141
Q

Define the mean.

A

The mean is calculated by adding all values in a data set and dividing by the number of values.

142
Q

How do you find the median in an odd-numbered data set?

A

The median is the middle value when scores are arranged from lowest to highest.

143
Q

What is the mode?

A

The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a data set.

144
Q

List the strengths of the mean.

A
  • Most sensitive measure
  • Includes all scores in the calculation
145
Q

List the limitations of the mean.

A
  • Easily distorted by extreme values
146
Q

List the strengths of the median.

A
  • Not impacted by extreme scores
  • Easy to calculate once in order
147
Q

List the limitations of the median.

A
  • Less sensitive than the mean
148
Q

List the strengths of the mode.

A
  • Very easy to calculate
  • Only method for categorical data
149
Q

List the limitations of the mode.

A
  • Crude measure
  • Not useful with several modes
150
Q

What are measures of dispersion?

A

Measures of dispersion indicate how far scores vary from one another.

151
Q

How is the range calculated?

A

The range is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score.

152
Q

What does standard deviation indicate?

A

Standard deviation indicates how much scores deviate from the mean.

153
Q

What is a bar chart used for?

A

A bar chart is used to show the difference in mean values for categorical data.

154
Q

How does a histogram differ from a bar chart?

A

In a histogram, bars touch each other to indicate related data.

155
Q

What is a line graph also known as?

A

A line graph is also known as a frequency polygon.

156
Q

What does a scattergram show?

A

A scattergram shows associations between co-variables.

157
Q

What is a pie chart used for?

A

A pie chart is used to represent categorical data as a percentage of a whole.

158
Q

What is a results table?

A

A results table summarizes data, including descriptive statistics like mean, median, and mode.

159
Q

What characterizes a normal distribution?

A

A normal distribution is symmetrical with the mean, mode, and median at the same point.

160
Q

What percentage of data lies within 1 standard deviation in a normal distribution?

A

68.26% of the data lie within 1 standard deviation.

161
Q

What is a positive skew?

A

A positive skew has more low scores, with a long tail to the right.

162
Q

What is a negative skew?

A

A negative skew has more high scores, with a long tail to the left.

163
Q

How do you calculate a percentage from marks?

A

Divide the mark obtained by the maximum marks and multiply by 100.

164
Q

How do you convert a percentage to a decimal?

A

Remove the % sign and move the decimal point two places to the left.

165
Q

What is the part-to-whole ratio?

A

A part-to-whole ratio provides the relationship between a particular group and the whole population.

166
Q

What is an estimating results question likely to ask for?

A

Estimates of correlations, means, ranges, etc.

167
Q

What do ratios provide in terms of data?

A

Ratios provide the relationship between two distinct groups.

168
Q

How should ratios always be expressed?

A

Ratios should always be reduced by finding the highest common factor.

169
Q

What is the accepted level of probability in psychology?

A

5%, written as p ≤ 0.05.

170
Q

What does p ≤ 0.05 indicate in a study?

A

There is equal to or less than 5% probability that the results occur by fluke.

171
Q

What are significant figures?

A

Significant figures start from the first non-zero number.

172
Q

How is the number 704.539018 rounded to 5 significant figures?

A

704.54

173
Q

What is the difference between significant figures and decimal places?

A

Significant figures relate to the precision of a number, while decimal places count digits to the right of the decimal point.

174
Q

What are order of magnitude calculations used for?

A

They are used to estimate and compare the exponents of numbers.

175
Q

What is the aim of science?

A

To produce a body of knowledge based on the results of research.

176
Q

What is the process that research must undergo before publication?

A

Peer review.

177
Q

What are the three main aims of peer review?

A
  • To allocate research funding
  • To validate the quality and relevance of the research
  • To suggest amendments or improvements
178
Q

How does psychological research impact the economy?

A

It influences spending, job types, and financial prosperity.

179
Q

What was John Bowlby’s assertion regarding child attachment?

A

A child can only form a secure and lasting monotropic bond with its mother.

180
Q

What does psychological research suggest about the role of fathers?

A

Fathers may fulfill a qualitatively different and equally valuable role in a child’s upbringing.

181
Q

What is the economic cost of absence from work due to mental disorders?

A

An estimated £15 billion a year.

182
Q

What is reliability in research?

A

Reliability refers to consistency in results when a study is repeated.

183
Q

What is internal reliability?

A

Internal reliability concerns the consistency within a study itself.

184
Q

What is external reliability?

A

External reliability concerns the consistency of a test over time.

185
Q

What method assesses external reliability?

A

The test-retest method.

186
Q

What does inter-observer reliability assess?

A

Whether different observers are rating behavior in the same way.

187
Q

What correlation score indicates good reliability?

A

A correlation of +0.8 or higher.

188
Q

What is validity in research?

A

Validity concerns the accuracy of a measure and whether it truly reflects what it claims to measure.

189
Q

What is internal validity concerned with?

A

Whether findings are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

190
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Variables other than the independent variable that may impact the dependent variable.

191
Q

What is the difference between extraneous and confounding variables?

A

Confounding variables vary systematically with the independent variable.

192
Q

What does external validity relate to?

A

The generalizability of findings to other settings, populations, and eras.

193
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Whether research findings can be generalized to natural, real-life settings.

194
Q

What is mundane realism?

A

Whether the tasks in a study are similar to everyday life.

195
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

The degree to which research findings can be applied to other time periods.

196
Q

What is face validity?

A

A basic form of validity where a measure is scrutinized to determine if it appears to measure what it claims.

197
Q

What is face validity?

A

A basic form of validity assessing whether a measure appears to measure what it is supposed to measure

Example: A test of anxiety should look like it measures anxiety.

198
Q

How is concurrent validity defined?

A

The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing, similar measure known to be valid

Example: Correlating results from OCR and AQA GCSE English papers.

199
Q

List ways to improve the internal validity of a study.

A
  • Use a control group
  • Reduce investigator effects
  • Minimise demand characteristics
  • Use a random sample
  • Operationalise variables
  • Collect more qualitative data
200
Q

What is the purpose of using a control group in experiments?

A

To assess whether changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable.

201
Q

True or False: High ecological validity means findings are likely to be natural and authentic.

A

True.

202
Q

What does qualitative research typically offer compared to quantitative methods?

A

Higher ecological validity due to depth and detail reflecting a participant’s reality.

203
Q

Define reliability in the context of psychological measures.

A

The consistency of a measure.

204
Q

What is the importance of the abstract section in a research report?

A

It provides a short summary of the major elements of the research.

205
Q

What does the introduction section of a research report include?

A

A review of past research, aims, and hypotheses of the current study.

206
Q

Fill in the blank: The __________ section describes what the researcher did, including design, sample, and procedure.

A

[method]

207
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

Summaries of data including tables, graphs, and measures of central tendency.

208
Q

What is the purpose of the discussion section in a research report?

A

To interpret results, consider implications, and discuss limitations.

209
Q

Define a paradigm in the context of scientific disciplines.

A

A shared set of assumptions about the subject matter and methods of a discipline.

210
Q

What is a paradigm shift?

A

Revolutionary changes in scientific assumptions leading to a new dominant theory.

211
Q

List the two phases of Kuhn’s scientific progress.

A
  • Normal science
  • Revolutionary shift
212
Q

What is the role of a hypothesis in scientific research?

A

A clear and precise prediction that can be tested.

213
Q

What does falsifiability mean?

A

The ability of a theory to be proven false.

214
Q

True or False: A theory must be verifiable to be considered scientific.

A

False; it must be falsifiable.

215
Q

What is replicability in scientific research?

A

The ability of findings to be repeated across different contexts and circumstances.

216
Q

What does objectivity in research imply?

A

Maintaining a critical distance and not allowing personal biases to influence data.

217
Q

Fill in the blank: The empirical method emphasizes data collection based on __________.

A

[direct sensory experience]

218
Q

What statistical tests are used for in psychology?

A

To determine whether differences or relationships found are significant.

219
Q

What is the empirical method in psychology?

A

A method that relies on observation and experience to gather knowledge.

Examples include the experimental and observational methods.

220
Q

Who were early empiricists that emphasized knowledge through experience?

A

John Locke.

Locke argued that knowledge is determined by experience and sensory perception.

221
Q

What is a hypothesis in research?

A

A statement predicting the relationship or difference between variables, which can be directional or non-directional.

222
Q

What does the null hypothesis state?

A

There is no difference or relationship between the variables being studied.

223
Q

What is the significance level in statistical tests?

A

The probability threshold at which researchers can claim an effect has been found, commonly set at 0.05.

224
Q

What does p = ≤ 0.05 indicate?

A

There is a 5% probability that the observed effect occurred by chance.

225
Q

What are Type I and Type II errors?

A

Type I error: rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true; Type II error: accepting the null hypothesis when the alternative is true.

226
Q

What is a Type I error often referred to as?

A

An optimistic error or false positive.

227
Q

What is a Type II error often referred to as?

A

A pessimistic error or false negative.

228
Q

What are the three decisions to make when choosing a statistical test?

A
  • Difference or correlation
  • Experimental design
  • Levels of measurement
229
Q

What does nominal data represent?

A

Categories where items can only appear in one category.

230
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

Ordered data that lacks equal intervals between units.

231
Q

What is interval data?

A

Data based on numerical scales with equal, precisely defined intervals.

232
Q

What is the usual level of significance in psychology?

A

0.05 or 5%.

233
Q

What is the ‘Funnel’ in terms of levels of measurement?

A

A metaphor illustrating the increasing information gained as data moves from nominal to ordinal to interval.

234
Q

What is the difference between independent groups design and repeated measures design?

A
  • Independent groups: each participant performs in one condition
  • Repeated measures: each participant performs in all conditions
235
Q

What does a calculated value need to be compared with in statistical tests?

A

The critical value.

236
Q

What is the conventional level of probability that researchers accept?

A

5% chance that results may have occurred by chance.

237
Q

Fill in the blank: Researchers use statistical tests to see whether results are due to chance, or whether there is a _______.

A

[consistent relationship or difference between two variables]

238
Q

True or False: A Type I error occurs when a researcher fails to reject a false null hypothesis.

A

False.

239
Q

True or False: In ordinal data, there are equal intervals between each unit.

A

False.

Psychology Paper 2 (6 decks)

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