Research Methods Knowledge Flashcards
What ethical issues arise in psychology?
Conflict between the rights of participants and the needs of researchers.
What is informed consent?
Making participants aware of the aims, procedures, and their rights regarding participation.
True or False: Participants should feel coerced to take part in research.
False
What is deception in psychological research?
Withholding information or being deliberately dishonest with participants.
What does protection from harm entail?
Participants should not be placed at more risk than in their daily lives and should be protected from physical and psychological harm.
What is confidentiality?
Participants’ rights to have their personal data protected.
What is the BPS Code of Ethics?
A set of ethical guidelines that researchers must follow when conducting research.
What does presumptive consent involve?
Getting consent from a similar group rather than the participants themselves.
What is prior general consent?
Participants give permission for multiple studies, including those that may involve deception.
What is retrospective consent?
Participants are asked for consent during debriefing after already participating in the study.
What must be included in a debrief after a study?
The true aims of the investigation, details not provided earlier, and information on data usage.
True or False: Participants have the right to withdraw their data.
True
What is the definition of population in research?
The large group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.
What is a sample in research?
A smaller group selected from the population for investigation.
What is random sampling?
Each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.
List one strength of random sampling.
- Potentially unbiased
- Enhances internal validity
What is a limitation of random sampling?
It is difficult and time-consuming to conduct.
What is systematic sampling?
Every nth member of the target population is selected from a sampling frame.
List one strength of systematic sampling.
- Objective selection process
- Reduces researcher bias
What is a limitation of systematic sampling?
It can be difficult and time-consuming to conduct.
Fill in the blank: The right to _______ refers to participants controlling information about themselves.
[privacy]
What is the target population?
A subset of the general population that a researcher is interested in.
What is the role of ethics committees?
To implement ethical guidelines and assess research proposals’ ethical acceptability.
What psychological harm might participants experience?
- Embarrassment
- Feeling inadequate
- Undue stress or pressure
True or False: Participants’ data must be shared with other researchers.
False
What is stratified sampling?
A sampling method where the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within the target population
Examples of sub-groups include age or gender.
What must a researcher do before conducting stratified sampling?
Identify different sub-groups within the target population and calculate needed proportions for a representative sample.
What is the strength of stratified sampling?
Produces a representative sample that allows for generalisation of findings.
List two limitations of stratified sampling.
- Identified strata may not reflect all differences among people
- It is time-consuming and difficult to conduct.
What is opportunity sampling?
Selecting anyone who happens to be willing or available to take part in the study.
What is a strength of opportunity sampling?
It is convenient and less costly in terms of time and money.
What is a limitation of opportunity sampling?
Samples are unrepresentative of the target population, leading to findings that cannot be generalised.
What is volunteer sampling?
A method where an advert is produced, and individuals self-select themselves to take part.
What is a strength of volunteer sampling?
It requires minimal input from the researcher, making it less time-consuming.
What is a limitation of volunteer sampling?
Volunteer bias may attract a certain profile of person, reducing the representativeness of the sample.
What is the purpose of formulating a hypothesis in research?
To predict a statistically significant effect of an independent variable (IV) on a dependent variable (DV) or a significant relationship between variables.
What is a directional hypothesis?
A hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship, using terms like more, less, higher, or lower.
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A hypothesis that does not specify the direction of the difference or relationship.
Fill in the blank: In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the _______ variable and measures the effect on the _______ variable.
[independent], [dependent]
What is the control condition in an experiment?
The condition that provides a baseline measure of behaviour without manipulation of the IV.
What is the experimental condition in an experiment?
The condition that involves the manipulation of the independent variable.
Define extraneous variables.
Any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if not controlled.
What are confounding variables?
Extraneous variables that vary systematically with the IV, obscuring the true source of change in the DV.
List four examples of confounding variables in a study measuring calorie intake on weight.
- Metabolic rate
- Age
- Physical activity
- Height
What are demand characteristics in research?
Clues that participants use to interpret the experimental situation, which may lead to altered behaviour.
What are investigator effects?
Any impact of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome, whether conscious or unconscious.
What is a single blind procedure?
A procedure where participants do not know which condition they are taking part in.
What is a double blind procedure?
A procedure where neither the participants nor the investigator know which condition the participants are in.
What is randomisation in research?
The use of chance to control for the effects of investigator bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
What is the purpose of standardisation in research?
To ensure all participants are subject to the same environment, information, and experience to reduce extraneous variables.
What is experimental design?
The way in which participants are used in experiments, including how they are arranged in relation to different experimental conditions.
What is a sample in experimental design?
A selection of participants from the target population that represent the population.
What is Independent Groups Design?
A design where two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment.
How are participants allocated in Independent Groups Design?
Through random allocation (lottery method) to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to a group.
What is Repeated Measures Design?
A design where all participants experience both conditions of the experiment.
What are order effects in Repeated Measures Design?
Effects that can occur due to the order in which conditions are experienced by participants.
What is counterbalancing?
A technique to reduce order effects by having half of the participants experience conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order.
What is Matched Pairs Design?
A design where participants are paired on relevant variables, and one from each pair is allocated to different conditions.
What is a lab experiment?
An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment.
What is a strength of lab experiments?
High control over confounding and extraneous variables, increasing internal validity.
What is a limitation of lab experiments?
They may lack generalizability due to the artificial environment, resulting in low ecological validity.
What is a field experiment?
An experiment where the IV is manipulated in a natural, everyday setting.
What is a strength of field experiments?
Higher ecological validity and mundane realism due to the natural environment.
What is a limitation of field experiments?
Loss of control over confounding and extraneous variables, making it difficult to establish cause and effect.
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment where the researcher has no control over the IV, which varies due to external factors.
What is a strength of natural experiments?
They provide opportunities for research that may not be possible for practical or ethical reasons.
What is a limitation of natural experiments?
Naturally occurring events may happen rarely, limiting research opportunities and generalizability.
What is a quasi experiment?
An experiment where the IV is based on an existing difference between people, such as age or gender.
What is a strength of quasi experiments?
They are often conducted under controlled conditions, sharing strengths with laboratory experiments.
What is a limitation of quasi experiments?
They cannot randomly allocate participants, leading to potential confounding variables.
Fill in the blank: In Independent Groups Design, participants are assigned to groups by _______.
random allocation
True or False: Counterbalancing eliminates order effects.
False
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run of the actual investigation.
What is the main purpose of a pilot study?
To road test the procedure and check if the investigation runs smoothly.
True or False: Pilot studies are only used in experimental studies.
False
How does a pilot study benefit self-report methods?
It helps to try out questions in advance and remove or reword ambiguous ones.
What role does a pilot study play in observational studies?
It checks coding systems before the real investigation is undertaken.
List three strengths of pilot studies.
- Saves time and money
- Valid data collection
- Provides practice for researchers
What is a limitation of pilot studies regarding participants?
More participants are required for the main study.
What could be a downside of a pilot study being shared publicly?
Future participants may experience demand characteristics.
What are observations in research?
A non-experimental method to study observable behaviour.
What are the three categories of observations?
- Controlled vs. Naturalistic
- Overt vs. Covert
- Participant vs. Non-participant
Describe naturalistic observations.
They take place in the setting where the target behaviour usually occurs.
List a strength and a limitation of naturalistic observations.
- Strength: Higher external validity
- Limitation: Difficult to replicate due to lack of control
What is a controlled observation?
An observation with some control over variables.
Give an example of a researcher who used controlled observation.
Mary Ainsworth in her Strange Situation studies.
True or False: Controlled observations have higher ecological validity.
False
What characterizes covert observation?
Participants are unaware they are being observed.
List one strength and one limitation of covert observations.
- Strength: Reduces demand characteristics
- Limitation: Ethical concerns regarding privacy
What is overt observation?
Participants know they are being observed and have given consent.
What is a potential drawback of overt observation?
Participants may alter their behaviour due to awareness of being observed.
What is participant observation?
The observer becomes part of the group being studied.
List one strength and one limitation of participant observation.
- Strength: Increased insight into participants’ lives
- Limitation: Loss of objectivity
Define non-participant observations.
Researchers remain separate from those they are studying.
What is a strength of non-participant observation?
Increased objectivity due to psychological distance.
What is a limitation of non-participant observation?
Decreased validity due to being too far removed from participants.
What is an unstructured observation?
It is a method where the researcher writes down everything they see, producing detailed accounts of behavior.
What is a structured observation?
It simplifies target behaviors into behavioral categories for systematic recording.
Define behavioral categories.
They are sets of defined and observable behaviors used to organize observations.
What is event sampling?
Counting the number of times a specific behavior occurs in a target individual or group.
What is time sampling?
Recording behavior within a pre-established time frame.
What is inter-observer reliability?
It checks the consistency of data recorded by different observers to reduce bias.
How is inter-observer reliability calculated?
By correlating observations made by different observers, with a correlation coefficient above +0.8 indicating good reliability.
What is a questionnaire?
A self-report technique consisting of written questions to assess thoughts and experiences.
What are open questions?
Questions that allow respondents to answer in any way they wish, producing qualitative data.
What are closed questions?
Questions that offer a fixed set of responses, often producing quantitative data.
What is a Likert scale?
A scale where respondents indicate their agreement with a statement using a range of points.
What should be avoided in question design?
Overuse of jargon, emotive language, leading questions, double-barrelled questions, and double negatives.
What are structured interviews?
Interviews that consist of a predetermined set of questions asked in a fixed order.
What is an unstructured interview?
An interview that resembles a conversation without set questions, allowing free-flowing interaction.
What is a case study?
An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, institution, or event.
What type of data is typically collected in case studies?
Qualitative data, often using interviews, observations, and questionnaires.
What is content analysis?
A method of observational research studying people indirectly through their communications.
What is coding in content analysis?
Reading data and identifying instances of chosen categories, often creating a tally.
What is thematic analysis?
An inductive approach to analyzing qualitative data, focusing on identifying recurrent themes.
What does a positive correlation indicate?
As one co-variable increases, the other co-variable also increases.
What does a negative correlation indicate?
As one co-variable increases, the other co-variable decreases.
What is a zero correlation?
Indicates no relationship between two co-variables.
What is the range of correlation coefficients?
From -1 to +1, where + indicates positive correlation and - indicates negative correlation.
What is the difference between correlations and experiments?
Correlations do not manipulate variables, while experiments involve manipulation of the independent variable.
Fill in the blank: The more caffeine people drink, the more ________.
anxiety.
Fill in the blank: The more caffeine someone drinks, the less ________.
sleep.
Fill in the blank: A strong correlation coefficient ranges from ________ to ________.
0.8 to 1.
What does a researcher do in an experiment?
Manipulates the independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV)
This allows for the assumption that changes in the DV are caused by the IV.
What is the main difference between correlations and experiments?
Correlations do not involve manipulation of variables, making it impossible to establish cause and effect
In experiments, the manipulation of the IV allows for causal conclusions.
What can be assumed when a strong correlation is found between two co-variables?
It cannot be assumed that one co-variable is causing the other
Correlation does not imply causation.
What are intervening variables?
Other variables that could influence the association between two co-variables
These must be considered when explaining relationships.
Give an example of a strong relationship that may not imply causation.
The relationship between caffeine and anxiety levels
Other factors like personality type, job stress, or personal problems could influence this relationship.
What is qualitative data?
Qualitative data is expressed in words rather than numbers or statistics, often describing thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
Give examples of qualitative data.
- Transcript from an interview
- Extract from a diary
- Notes from a counseling session
What type of research methods collect qualitative data?
- Interviews
- Unstructured observations
- Diary extracts
What is quantitative data?
Quantitative data is expressed numerically and can be statistically analyzed.
What type of research methods collect quantitative data?
- Experiments
- Closed questions from questionnaires
- Interviews
True or False: Qualitative data is always better than quantitative data.
False.
What is primary data?
Primary data refers to original data collected specifically for the study by the researcher.
What are some methods of collecting primary data?
- Experiments
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Observations
What is secondary data?
Secondary data refers to data collected by someone else and not specifically for the current study.
Give examples of secondary data.
- Journal articles
- Books
- Websites
- Government statistical information
What is a meta-analysis?
A meta-analysis uses secondary data from multiple studies to produce a joint conclusion.
What are measures of central tendency?
Measures of central tendency are averages that provide information about the most typical values in a data set.
Define the mean.
The mean is calculated by adding all values in a data set and dividing by the number of values.
How do you find the median in an odd-numbered data set?
The median is the middle value when scores are arranged from lowest to highest.
What is the mode?
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a data set.
List the strengths of the mean.
- Most sensitive measure
- Includes all scores in the calculation
List the limitations of the mean.
- Easily distorted by extreme values
List the strengths of the median.
- Not impacted by extreme scores
- Easy to calculate once in order
List the limitations of the median.
- Less sensitive than the mean
List the strengths of the mode.
- Very easy to calculate
- Only method for categorical data
List the limitations of the mode.
- Crude measure
- Not useful with several modes
What are measures of dispersion?
Measures of dispersion indicate how far scores vary from one another.
How is the range calculated?
The range is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score.
What does standard deviation indicate?
Standard deviation indicates how much scores deviate from the mean.
What is a bar chart used for?
A bar chart is used to show the difference in mean values for categorical data.
How does a histogram differ from a bar chart?
In a histogram, bars touch each other to indicate related data.
What is a line graph also known as?
A line graph is also known as a frequency polygon.
What does a scattergram show?
A scattergram shows associations between co-variables.
What is a pie chart used for?
A pie chart is used to represent categorical data as a percentage of a whole.
What is a results table?
A results table summarizes data, including descriptive statistics like mean, median, and mode.
What characterizes a normal distribution?
A normal distribution is symmetrical with the mean, mode, and median at the same point.
What percentage of data lies within 1 standard deviation in a normal distribution?
68.26% of the data lie within 1 standard deviation.
What is a positive skew?
A positive skew has more low scores, with a long tail to the right.
What is a negative skew?
A negative skew has more high scores, with a long tail to the left.
How do you calculate a percentage from marks?
Divide the mark obtained by the maximum marks and multiply by 100.
How do you convert a percentage to a decimal?
Remove the % sign and move the decimal point two places to the left.
What is the part-to-whole ratio?
A part-to-whole ratio provides the relationship between a particular group and the whole population.
What is an estimating results question likely to ask for?
Estimates of correlations, means, ranges, etc.
What do ratios provide in terms of data?
Ratios provide the relationship between two distinct groups.
How should ratios always be expressed?
Ratios should always be reduced by finding the highest common factor.
What is the accepted level of probability in psychology?
5%, written as p ≤ 0.05.
What does p ≤ 0.05 indicate in a study?
There is equal to or less than 5% probability that the results occur by fluke.
What are significant figures?
Significant figures start from the first non-zero number.
How is the number 704.539018 rounded to 5 significant figures?
704.54
What is the difference between significant figures and decimal places?
Significant figures relate to the precision of a number, while decimal places count digits to the right of the decimal point.
What are order of magnitude calculations used for?
They are used to estimate and compare the exponents of numbers.
What is the aim of science?
To produce a body of knowledge based on the results of research.
What is the process that research must undergo before publication?
Peer review.
What are the three main aims of peer review?
- To allocate research funding
- To validate the quality and relevance of the research
- To suggest amendments or improvements
How does psychological research impact the economy?
It influences spending, job types, and financial prosperity.
What was John Bowlby’s assertion regarding child attachment?
A child can only form a secure and lasting monotropic bond with its mother.
What does psychological research suggest about the role of fathers?
Fathers may fulfill a qualitatively different and equally valuable role in a child’s upbringing.
What is the economic cost of absence from work due to mental disorders?
An estimated £15 billion a year.
What is reliability in research?
Reliability refers to consistency in results when a study is repeated.
What is internal reliability?
Internal reliability concerns the consistency within a study itself.
What is external reliability?
External reliability concerns the consistency of a test over time.
What method assesses external reliability?
The test-retest method.
What does inter-observer reliability assess?
Whether different observers are rating behavior in the same way.
What correlation score indicates good reliability?
A correlation of +0.8 or higher.
What is validity in research?
Validity concerns the accuracy of a measure and whether it truly reflects what it claims to measure.
What is internal validity concerned with?
Whether findings are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
What are extraneous variables?
Variables other than the independent variable that may impact the dependent variable.
What is the difference between extraneous and confounding variables?
Confounding variables vary systematically with the independent variable.
What does external validity relate to?
The generalizability of findings to other settings, populations, and eras.
What is ecological validity?
Whether research findings can be generalized to natural, real-life settings.
What is mundane realism?
Whether the tasks in a study are similar to everyday life.
What is temporal validity?
The degree to which research findings can be applied to other time periods.
What is face validity?
A basic form of validity where a measure is scrutinized to determine if it appears to measure what it claims.
What is face validity?
A basic form of validity assessing whether a measure appears to measure what it is supposed to measure
Example: A test of anxiety should look like it measures anxiety.
How is concurrent validity defined?
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing, similar measure known to be valid
Example: Correlating results from OCR and AQA GCSE English papers.
List ways to improve the internal validity of a study.
- Use a control group
- Reduce investigator effects
- Minimise demand characteristics
- Use a random sample
- Operationalise variables
- Collect more qualitative data
What is the purpose of using a control group in experiments?
To assess whether changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable.
True or False: High ecological validity means findings are likely to be natural and authentic.
True.
What does qualitative research typically offer compared to quantitative methods?
Higher ecological validity due to depth and detail reflecting a participant’s reality.
Define reliability in the context of psychological measures.
The consistency of a measure.
What is the importance of the abstract section in a research report?
It provides a short summary of the major elements of the research.
What does the introduction section of a research report include?
A review of past research, aims, and hypotheses of the current study.
Fill in the blank: The __________ section describes what the researcher did, including design, sample, and procedure.
[method]
What are descriptive statistics?
Summaries of data including tables, graphs, and measures of central tendency.
What is the purpose of the discussion section in a research report?
To interpret results, consider implications, and discuss limitations.
Define a paradigm in the context of scientific disciplines.
A shared set of assumptions about the subject matter and methods of a discipline.
What is a paradigm shift?
Revolutionary changes in scientific assumptions leading to a new dominant theory.
List the two phases of Kuhn’s scientific progress.
- Normal science
- Revolutionary shift
What is the role of a hypothesis in scientific research?
A clear and precise prediction that can be tested.
What does falsifiability mean?
The ability of a theory to be proven false.
True or False: A theory must be verifiable to be considered scientific.
False; it must be falsifiable.
What is replicability in scientific research?
The ability of findings to be repeated across different contexts and circumstances.
What does objectivity in research imply?
Maintaining a critical distance and not allowing personal biases to influence data.
Fill in the blank: The empirical method emphasizes data collection based on __________.
[direct sensory experience]
What statistical tests are used for in psychology?
To determine whether differences or relationships found are significant.
What is the empirical method in psychology?
A method that relies on observation and experience to gather knowledge.
Examples include the experimental and observational methods.
Who were early empiricists that emphasized knowledge through experience?
John Locke.
Locke argued that knowledge is determined by experience and sensory perception.
What is a hypothesis in research?
A statement predicting the relationship or difference between variables, which can be directional or non-directional.
What does the null hypothesis state?
There is no difference or relationship between the variables being studied.
What is the significance level in statistical tests?
The probability threshold at which researchers can claim an effect has been found, commonly set at 0.05.
What does p = ≤ 0.05 indicate?
There is a 5% probability that the observed effect occurred by chance.
What are Type I and Type II errors?
Type I error: rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true; Type II error: accepting the null hypothesis when the alternative is true.
What is a Type I error often referred to as?
An optimistic error or false positive.
What is a Type II error often referred to as?
A pessimistic error or false negative.
What are the three decisions to make when choosing a statistical test?
- Difference or correlation
- Experimental design
- Levels of measurement
What does nominal data represent?
Categories where items can only appear in one category.
What is ordinal data?
Ordered data that lacks equal intervals between units.
What is interval data?
Data based on numerical scales with equal, precisely defined intervals.
What is the usual level of significance in psychology?
0.05 or 5%.
What is the ‘Funnel’ in terms of levels of measurement?
A metaphor illustrating the increasing information gained as data moves from nominal to ordinal to interval.
What is the difference between independent groups design and repeated measures design?
- Independent groups: each participant performs in one condition
- Repeated measures: each participant performs in all conditions
What does a calculated value need to be compared with in statistical tests?
The critical value.
What is the conventional level of probability that researchers accept?
5% chance that results may have occurred by chance.
Fill in the blank: Researchers use statistical tests to see whether results are due to chance, or whether there is a _______.
[consistent relationship or difference between two variables]
True or False: A Type I error occurs when a researcher fails to reject a false null hypothesis.
False.
True or False: In ordinal data, there are equal intervals between each unit.
False.
