Approaches Key Words Flashcards
Psychology
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions impacting behaviour in a given context.
Science
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation.
The aim is to discover general laws.
Introspection
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up
conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images, and sensations
Psychodynamic approach
A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.
The unconscious
The part of the mind that individuals are unaware of, but which directs much of their behaviour.
Id
Entirely unconscious, the Id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand instant gratification.
Ego
The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the Id and the Superego.
Superego
The moralistic part of the personality which represents the ideal self.
Defence Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and superego
Repression
Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
Denial
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.
Displacement
Transferring feelings from the true source of the distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
Psychosexual stages
Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which impacts future development.
Behaviourist approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
Classical conditioning
Learning by association. This occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone.
Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive and negative reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. It can be positive or negative.
Positive reinforcement
Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.
Negative reinforcement
Performing a behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus that would be viewed as a punishment.
Punishment
An unpleasant consequence of behaviour. It decreases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
Unconditioned stimulus
The stimulus that causes the reflex response before conditioning. It is the stimulus that naturally produces the response.
Unconditioned response
The innate (reflexive) response to a stimulus that has not be conditioned.
Neutral stimulus
A stimulus that does not produce a response by itself.
Conditioned stimulus
Initially the neutral stimulus, that after repeated parings with the unconditioned stimulus, produces the conditioned response when presented by itself.
Conditioned response
The reflexive response that occurs after exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
Social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
Imitation
Copying the behaviour of others.
Identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model. This is usually because the person or group possesses certain ‘desirable’ characteristics.
Modelling
Imitating the behaviour of a role model OR modelling the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that might be imitated by an observer.
Meditational processes
Cognitive factors i.e., thinking, that influence learning and come between a stimulus and response.
Attention
The extent to which individuals notice certain behaviours.
Retention
How well a behaviour is remembered.
Reproduction
The ability of an observer to perform a behaviour.
Motivation
The will to perform a behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing a role model being reinforced or punished for a behaviour.
Cognitive approach
The term ‘cognitive’ means mental processes. This approach is focused on how mental processes such as thoughts, perceptions, and attention impact behaviour.
Internal mental processes
Private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.
Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and explanations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate based on observed behaviour.
Cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
Biological approach
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.
Genes
Genes make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical and psychological features of an organism. They are transmitted from parents to offspring i.e., they are inherited.
Biological structures
The physiological structures within an individual’s body that are seen as integrating with each other to produce one’s characteristics and behaviour.
Neurochemistry
The study of chemical processes associated with the brain to regulate psychological functioning.
Genotype
The set of genes that a person possesses.
Phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.
Evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
Concordance rate
A measure of similarity between two individuals or sets of individuals on a given rates trait.
Humanistic approach
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experiences and each person’s capacity for self-determination.
Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour is not determined by internal or external factors.
Self actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s potential - becoming what one is capable of.
Hierarchy of needs
A five-levelled hierarchy in which basic psychological needs must be satisfied before higher needs can be achieved
Self
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’.
Congruence
The aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self-concept and the ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.
Conditions of worth
When a parent places limits on their love of their children.
Nature
Those aspects of behaviour that are inherited. The term ‘nature’ does not simply refer to abilities present at birth but to any ability determined by genes, including those that appear through maturation.
Nurture
Those aspects of behaviour that are acquired through experience i.e., learned from interactions with the physical and social environment.
Reductionism
The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts.
Holism
An argument which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts.
Determinism
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Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.
Idiographic approach
Derived from the Greek ‘idios’ meaning ‘private’ or ‘personal’. The approach focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour.
Nomothetic approach
Derived from the Greek ‘nomos’ meaning law’. The approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws.
Natural selection
The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring
Sexual selection
Natural selection arising through preference by one sec for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex
Soft determinism
Behaviours may be predicted but there is also room for personal choice
Hard determinism
All behaviour is caused by something so free will is an illusion
