Research Methods Key Words Flashcards
Ethical issues
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in
research studies and the goals of the researcher to produce authentic, valid
and worthwhile data.
Confidentiality
A participant’s right to have personal information protected.
Deception
Where a participant is not told the true aims of the study e.g., what it will
involve and therefore cannot give truly informed consent.
Informed consent
Participants have the right to be given comprehensive information
concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in
order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate.
Protection from harm
During a research study, participants should not experience negative physicalor psychological effects such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem or embarrassment
Right to withdraw
Participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way and should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced.
Anonymity
A participant’s right to remain nameless.
Competency
The capacity for the researcher to deal professionally with issues that arise
during the course of the research programme.
BPS code of conduct
A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS)
that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not
acceptable when dealing with participants. It is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.
Population
Refers to the large group of individuals that a particular researcher may be
interested in studying, for example students attending sixth form.
Target population
Refers to a particular subset of the overall population from which the sample will be taken, for example students attending sixth form in Newcastle
Sample
Refers to the group of people who take part in a research investigation. It is drawn from the target population and is presumed to be representative of that population.
Sampling techniques
The methods used to select people from the population.
Bias
When certain groups may be over- or under-represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
Representative
In relation to sampling, this means that the sample contains the same
characteristics as the target population from which it was taken.
Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is
representative of the population.
Aim
A general statement of what the research intends to investigate, the purpose of the study.
Hypothesis
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables being investigated. It predicts a statistically significant effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable (i.e., an experiment), or a significant relationship between variables (i.e., a correlation study). It is stated at the outset of any study.
Directional hypothesis
Testable statement that states the direction of the difference or relationship.
Non directional hypothesis
Testable statement that does not state the direction of the difference or
relationship.
Null hypothesis
Testable statement that predicts that a statistically significant difference or
relationship will not be found.
Variable
Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are
used in experiments to determine if changes in one ‘thing’ result in changes to another ‘thing’.
Independent variable
The variable that is manipulated by the researcher so that they can measure the effect on the dependent variable.
Dependant variable
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on this variable
should be caused by changes to the independent variable.
Operationalisation
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
Control condititon
The condition in an experiment that provides a baseline measure of
behaviour without the manipulation of the dependent variable. The results from the experimental condition are compared to this condition.
Experimental condition
The condition in an experiment that involves the manipulation of the
independent variable. Results from this condition are compared to the
results from the control condition.
Extraneous variable
Any variable other than the independent variable, that may have an impact on the dependent variable if it is not controlled. They are ‘nuisance variables’ that do not vary systematically with the independent variable. Their effect is random.
Confounding variable
Any extraneous variable that varies systematically with the independent
variable, so that the true source of change to the dependent variable cannot be known.
Demand characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be
interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to participants deliberately changing their behaviour within the
research situation. It leads to the ‘please-U’ and ‘screw-U’ effects.
Participant reactivity
The tendency for participants to react to cues from the researcher or from
the research environment.
Investigator effects
Any effect of the investigators’ behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the dependent variable. This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, the participants during the research.
Single blind procedure
When participants do not know which condition they are taking part in within an experiment.
Double blind procedure
When neither the participants nor the investigator knows which condition
the participants are taking part in within an experiment.
Randomisation
The use of chance to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
Standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all
participants in a research study.
Experimental design
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
Independent groups design
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
Repeated measures design
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
Matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may impact the dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B.
Random allocation
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups
design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.
Order effects
A confounding variable that occurs in repeated measures designs, arising from the order in which conditions are presented e.g., practice effect or boredom effect.
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control for the effects of order effects in a repeated measures design: half of the participants experience the conditions in one order (A then B) and the other half in the opposite order (B then A).
Experiment
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi.
Lab experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the independent variable and records the effect on the dependent variable, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.
Field experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the independent variable and records the effect on the dependent variable.
Natural experiment
An experiment where the change in the independent variable is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the dependent variable.
Quasi experiment
A study that is almost an experiment, but the independent variable has not
been determined by anyone. The ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young.
Pilot study
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work and allow the researcher to make any changes or modifications if necessary.
Naturalistic observation
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would
normally occur.
Controlled observation
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment i.e., one where some variables are managed.
Covert observation
Participant behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge and consent.
Overt observation
Participant behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and
consent.
Participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.
Non-participant
observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are
watching and recording.
Unstructured observation
A type of observation where every instance of a behaviour is recorded in as much detail as possible. This is useful if the behaviours researchers are interested in do not occur very often.
Structured observation
A type of observation where the researcher uses various systems to
organise observations, such as a sampling technique and behavioural
categories.
Target behaviours
Behaviours which are the main focus of an investigation.
Behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable
and measurable.
Behaviour checklist
A checklist of behaviour(s) to be observed in individual components. Each component be an observable behaviour which is measurable.
Continuous recording
Making a note of everything without pause.
Event sampling
When the researcher records the number of times a particular behaviour or event occurs in a target individual or group.
Time sampling
When the researcher records behaviour within a pre-determined time frame.
Inter observer reliability
The extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers
involved in the observations of a behaviour. This is measured by correlating
the observations of two or more observers. If the correlation between the
two observers is +0.8, the data is said to have high inter observer reliability.
Quantative data
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers.
Qualitative data
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical form.
Observer bias
When observer’s expectations impact what they see or hear. This reduces
the validity of the observation.
Self-report technique
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and or experiences related to a given topic.
Questionnaire
A set of written questions, sometimes referred to as items, used to assess a
person’s thoughts and or experiences.
Open questions
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish. For example, why did you stop smoking?
Closed questions
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of response which is determined by the question setter. For example, do you smoke? Yes/No
Social desirability bias
A tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light.
Acquiescence bias
The tendency to agree with items on a questionnaire regardless of the content of the question.
Interview
A ‘live’ encounter (face to face or over the phone) where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and, or experiences. The questions may be pre-set (as in a structured interview) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured interview).
Structured interview
An interview where the questions are decided in advance – they are pre-
determined. It is basically a questionnaire delivered by a person.
Unstructured interview
An interview that starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions. The interaction is free flowing. The interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate on their answers as prompted by the interviewer.
Semi- structured interview
An interview that combines some pre-determined questions (as in a structured interview) and some questions developed in response to answers given (as in an unstructured interview). This allows the interviewee to ask follow-up questions when they feel that it is appropriate.
Interview schedule
A set of pre-set questions for an interviewer to use.
Interviewer bias
Bias that occurs as a result of the interviewer. This may be the way they respond to participants, the topic areas that they are interested in etc. It impacts the results that are obtained from the interview.
Group interview
More than one participant is interviewed at one time.
Case studies
An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution, or event.
Content analysis
A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining the communications that people produce. The format that the communication comes in can include spoken interaction, written forms, or media. It may involve quantitative or qualitative analysis, or both.
Coding
The stage of a content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories. It is the process of placing quantitative or qualitative data into categories.
Thematic analysis
An inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. The data is then organised according to these themes. Themes often emerge once some coding of the data has occurred.
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association/relationship between two variables, called co-variables.
Co variables
The variables investigated within a correlation, for example height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates an association/relationship between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause-and-effect relationship.
Positive correlation
As one co-variable increases so does the other. For example, the number of people in a room and noise are positively correlated.
Negative correlation
As one co-variable increases the other decreases. For example, the number of people in a room and amount of personal space are negatively correlated.
Zero correlations
When there is no association/relationship between the co-variables. For example, the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total daily rainfall in Peru.
Correlation co efficient
A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of the relationship between co-variables.
Intervening
variable
A variable that comes between two other variables and can be used to explain the relationship between two variables. For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by an intervening variable, heat, which causes both the increase in ice cream sales an increase in violence.
Primary data
Information that has been obtained first hand by a researcher for the
purposes of a research project. Such data is often gathered directly from
participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.
Secondary data
Information that has already been collected by someone else and predates the current research project. Such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics.
Meta analysis
The process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a
particular topic. The aim is to produce an overall statistical conclusion, the effect size, based on a range of studies. A meta-analysis should not be confused with a review, where a number of studies are compared and
discussed.
Effect size
A measure of the strength or relationship between two variables.
Publication bias
The tendency for academic journals to publish only positive findings, or
findings that agree with the existing theory.
Descriptive statistics
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.
Measures if central tendency
The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data.
Mean
The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values there are.
Median
The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest.
Mode
The most frequently occurring value in a set of data.
Bimodal
When there are two modes.
Measures of dispersion
The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores.
Range
A simple calculation of the dispersion in a set of scores, which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score. Sometimes 1 can be added to the calculation to account for rounding errors.
Standard deviation
A calculation which states how much scores deviate from the mean by
calculating the difference between the mean and each score.
Bar chart
A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars.
Histogram
A type of graph which shows frequency but, unlike a bar chart, the area of the bars, not just the height, represents frequency. The x-axis must start at true zero and the scale is continuous.
Line graph
A graph displaying continuous variables. It shows information as a series of data points connected by straight line segments.
Scattergram
A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis.
Normal distribution
A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern.
The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak.
Skewed distribution
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters
to one end.
Positive skew
A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.
Negative skew
A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right.
Decimal form
A decimal number contains a decimal point. Decimals are used to write fractions as a single number. The decimal point shows where the fractional part of a number begins.
Standard form
A way of writing numbers that allows for small or large numbers in a shortened form. Numbers in standard form are expressed as a multiple of a power of ten. Numbers written in standard form are written in the form: A × 10 n.
Ratio
A comparison of two things.
Fraction
Indicates parts of a whole.
Percentage
A percentage is a ratio, fraction, or portion of a whole which is represented as 100.
Significant figures
The number of digits in a value, often a measurement, that contribute to the degree of accuracy of the value.
Order of magnitude calculations
This is an estimate rounded to the nearest power of ten.
Highest common factor
The highest number that can be divided exactly into each of two or more numbers.
Peer review
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of a high quality.
Publication bias
The tendency for academic journals to publish only positive findings, or
findings that agree with existing theory.
Economy
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.
Reliability
This refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are. A measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results every time it is used.
Test-restest reliability
A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions. This shows to what extent the test (or other measure) produces the same answers i.e. is consistent or reliable.
Inter-observer reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. This is measured by correlating the observations of two or more observers. A general rule is that if (total number of agreements)/(total number of observations) is more than +0.8, the data have high inter-observer reliability.
Validity
The extent to which an observed effect is genuine. Does it measure what it was supposed to measure, and can it be generalised beyond the research setting within which it was found?
Face validity
A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. Does a test of anxiety look like it measures anxiety?
Concurrent validity
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing, similar measure.
Ecological validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations. A form of external validity.
Temporal validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras. A form of external validity.
Abstract
The key details of the research report.
Introduction
A look at past research, theories and or studies, on a similar topic. It includes the aims and hypothesis of the current investigation.
Method
A description of what the researchers did, including design, sample, apparatus, materials, procedure, ethics.
Results
A description of what the researchers found, including descriptive and inferential
statistics.
Discussion
A consideration of what the results of a research study tell psychologists in terms
of psychological theory.
Refrences
A list of sources that are referenced to or quoted in the article. For example, journal articles, books or websites, and their full details.
Falsification
The idea that scientific statements are capable of being proven wrong.
Paradigm
A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
Objective
Being uninfluenced by personal opinions or past experiences. Being free from bias.
Verification
The establishment of the correctness of a theory or fact.
Theory
A collection of general principles used to explain specific observations and
facts.
Replicability
Being able to repeat a study to check the validity and reliability of the findings.
Scientific process
A means of acquiring knowledge based on observable and measurable
evidence.
Rigorous
Being extremely thorough and careful so to strictly apply or adhere to a
system.
Paradigm shift
A significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific
discipline as a result of a scientific revolution.
Empirical
Relying on or derived from observation or experiment.
Subjective
Being influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions. This involves bias.
Statistical testing
Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. By using a statistical test, psychologists can find out whether differences or relationships between variables are significant i.e., meaningful, or are likely to have occurred by chance.
Probability
A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 shows statistical certainty.
Significance
A statistical term that shows how sure psychologists are that a difference or correlation exists. A significant result means that the researcher can reject the null hypothesis.
Critical value
The numerical boundary or cutoff point between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis.
Calculated value
The value of a test statistic calculated by a particular data set.
Type I error
The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis. A false positive.
Type II error
The failure to reject a false null hypothesis. A false negative.
Statistical tests
Used in psychology to determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists and consequently, whether the null hypothesis should be rejected or accepted. They can be referred to as inferential statistics.
Levels of measurement
Quantitative data can be classified into types or levels of measurement such as nominal, ordinal, or interval data.
Nominal data
A level of measurement where data is in separate categories.
Ordinal data
A level of measurement where data is ordered in some way but the intervals
between each item are unequal.
Interval data
A level of measurement where data is measured on a scale where the intervals between each value is the same.
