Biopsychology Key words Flashcards
Nervous system
Consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
Central nervous system
Consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex
commands and decisions. It passes messages to and from the brain and
connects nerves to the peripheral nervous system.
Brain
The centre of all conscious awareness. The cerebral cortex is highly developed in humans and is what distinguishes peoples higher mental functions from those
of animals. It is divided into two hemispheres.
Spinal cord
An extension of the brain. It is responsible for reflex actions such as pulling a hand away from a hot plate.
Peripheral nervous system
Sends information to the central nervous system from the outside world and transmits messages from the central nervous system to muscles and glands in the body. It does this via millions of neurons (nerve cells) and is divided into the autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system.
Somatic nervous system
Transmits information from receptor cells in the sense organs to the central nervous system. It also receives information from the central nervous system that directs muscles to contract. It controls muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors.
Autonomic nervous system
Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs. It is ‘autonomic’ as the system operates involuntarily. It has two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It governs vital functions of the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses.
Parasympathetic nervous system
A division of the autonomic nervous system which controls the relaxed state (rest and digest), conserving resources and promoting digestion and metabolism. The parasympathetic branch works in opposition to the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
Sympathetic nervous system
A division of the autonomic nervous system which activates internal organs for vigorous activities and emergencies, such as the fight or flight response. It consists of nerves that control, for example, increased heart rate and breathing, and decreased digestive activity. The sympathetic branch works in opposition to the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous
Neurons
The basic building blocks of the nervous system. Neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals.
Sensory neuron
These carry messages from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous
system. They have long dendrites and short axons.
Relay neuron
These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.
Motor neuron
These connect the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons.
Cell body
This is known as the factory of the neuron. It contains the nucleus and produces all of the necessary proteins that a neuron requires to function.
Nucleus
This contains the genetic material within the neuron.
Dendrites
These branch-like features protrude from the cell body. They carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body.
Axon
This carries the electrical impulse from the cell body, down the length of the neuron. It is covered in a myelin sheath.
Myelin sheath
This a fatty layer, which surrounds and protects the axon. It helps to speed up the electrical transmission of the impulse.
Nodes of ranvier
These are the gaps in the myelin sheath. Their purpose is to speed up the transmission of the impulse by forcing it to ‘jump’ across the gaps along the axon.
Terminal buttons
They are located at the end of the axon. They communicate with the next neuron that is on the other side of the synaptic cleft.
Synaptic transmission
The process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synaptic cleft that separates them.
Neurotransmitters
Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Neurotransmitters can be broadly
divided into those that perform an inhibitory or an excitatory function.
Excitation
When a neurotransmitter, such as adrenaline, increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron. This increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse.
Inhibition
When a neurotransmitter, such as serotonin, makes the charge of the postsynaptic neuron more negative. This decreases the likelihood that the
neuron will fire and pass on the electrical signal.
Synapse
The junction between two neurons. This includes the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic receptor site.
Synaptic cleft
The space between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neuron.
Synaptic vesicles
Small sacs on the end of a pre-synaptic neuron that contain neurotransmitters that will be released into a synapse.
Pre synaptic neuron
The transmitting neuron, before the synaptic cleft.
Post synaptic receptor site
A receptor on the post-synaptic neuron. A neurotransmitter locks into a specific receptor on the post-synaptic neuron and this triggers an electrical impulse in the post-synaptic neuron.
Endocrine system
One of the body’s major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are carried towards target organs in the body.
Gland
An organ in the body that makes hormones.
Hormone
Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only impact target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful.
Fight or flight response
The way an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressive or, in some cases, flee.
Adrenaline
A hormone produced by the adrenal glands which is part of the human body’s immediate stress response system. Adrenaline has a strong effect on the cells of the cardiovascular system stimulating heart rate, contracting blood vessels and dilating air passages.
Functional magnetic
resonance imaging
(fMRI)
A method used to measure brain activity while a person is performing a task. It detects radio waves from changing magnetic fields. This enables researchers to detect which regions of the brain are rich in oxygen and therefore active.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
A record of tiny electrical impulses produced by the brain’s activity. By
measuring characteristic wave patterns, the EEG can help diagnose certain conditions of the brain.
Event related potentials (ERPs)
The electrophysiological response of the brain to a specific sensory,
cognitive, or motor event can be isolated through statistical analysis of
EEG.
Post Mortem examinations
The brain is analysed after death to determine whether certain observed
behaviours during the person’s lifetime can be linked to structural
abnormalities in the brain.
Temporal resolution
The accuracy of the scanner in relation to time i.e., how quickly the
scanner can detect changes in brain activity.
Spatial resolution
The smallest feature (or measurement) that a scanner can detect.
Localisation of function
The theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for specific
behaviours, processes, or activities.
Somatosensory area
An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch.
Motor area
A region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement.
Visual area
A part of the occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information.
Auditory area
A part of the temporal lobe concerned with the analysis of speech-based information.
Broca’s area
An area of the frontal lobe, in the left hemisphere, responsible for speech
production.
Wernicke’s area
An area of the temporal lobe, in the left hemisphere, responsible for language comprehension.
Contralateral
The opposite side of the body to the brain hemisphere that controls it.
Hemispheric lateralisation
The idea that the two hemispheres of the brain are functionally different. Some mental processes in the brain are mainly specialised to the left or right hemisphere.
Plasticity
The brain’s tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning. This generally involves the growth of new connections.
Functional recovery
A form of plasticity, following damage through trauma, where the brain is able to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area(s) to other, undamaged area(s).
Synaptic pruning
A process where rarely used connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened.
Recruitment of homologous areas
Where areas on the opposite side the brain can perform specific tasks.
Axonal sprouting
The growth of new nerve endings which connect with undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways.
Blood vessel reformation
Blood vessels are changed and strengthened so that the brain can function in the damaged areas.
Corpus callousm
A broad band of fibres that joins the two hemispheres of the brain, this allows communication to occur.
Split brain research
A series of studies which began in the 1960s involving epileptic patients who had experienced a surgical separation of the brain hemispheres. This allowed researchers to investigate the extent to which brain function is lateralised.
Biological rhythms
Distinct patterns of changes in body activity that conform to cyclical time periods. Biological rhythms are influenced by internal body clocks, endogenous pacemakers, as well as external changes to the environment, exogenous zeitgebers.
Circadian rhythms
Biological rhythms subject to a 24-hour cycle, which regulate a number of body processes such as the sleep/wake cycle and changes in core body temperature.
Endogenous pacemakers
Internal body clocks that regulate many biological rhythms such as the influence of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) on the sleep/wake cycle.
Exogenous zeitgebers
External cues that may impact or entrain biological rhythms, such as the influence of
light on the sleep/wake cycle.
Entrainment
The synchronisation of the body to the environment.
Infradian rhythm
A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of less than one cycle in 24-hours, such as menstruation and Seasonal Affective Disorder.
Ultradian rhythm
A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of more than one cycle in 24 hours, such as the stages of sleep.
Split brain research
A series of studies which began in the 1960s involving epileptic patients who had experienced a surgical separation of the brain hemispheres. This allowed researchers to investigate the extent to which brain function is lateralised.
Sleep wake cycle
pattern of being awake and asleep within a 24 hour period.
SCN
The SCN is an endogenous pacemaker and seems to be the most influential one in the human body. It is a tiny bundle of nerve cells located in the hypothalamus in each hemisphere of the brain.
