Biopsychology Knowledge Flashcards
What are the two major physiological systems that regulate behaviour in response to the environment?
Nervous system and endocrine system
These systems work together to manage how organisms respond to internal and external stimuli.
What is the primary function of the nervous system?
To collect, process and respond to information in the environment and to coordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body
The nervous system plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and facilitating communication within the body.
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
These divisions help to categorize the functions and structures of the nervous system.
What does the central nervous system consist of?
The brain and spinal cord
The CNS is essential for processing information and making decisions.
What is the role of the brain in the central nervous system?
It is the centre of all conscious awareness and the origin of all complex commands and decisions
The brain’s functions are vital for cognitive processes and voluntary actions.
What distinguishes human mental functions from those of animals?
The cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is involved in higher-level functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, and language.
How many hemispheres does the brain have?
Two (left and right)
Each hemisphere is associated with different cognitive functions and processes.
What are the four lobes of the brain?
Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
Each lobe has specific functions related to processing different types of information.
What is the function of the spinal cord?
Responsible for reflex actions and passing messages to and from the brain
The spinal cord also connects the CNS to the PNS.
What is the role of the peripheral nervous system?
Transmits messages to and from the CNS via millions of neurons
The PNS is crucial for communication between the brain and the rest of the body.
What are the two subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system?
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) and somatic nervous system (SNS)
These subdivisions have different roles in managing bodily functions.
What does the autonomic nervous system govern?
Vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal, and stress responses
The ANS operates involuntarily, meaning it functions without conscious control.
What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
These systems have opposing effects on bodily functions.
What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?
Activates internal organs and increases bodily activities
This system is often referred to as the ‘fight or flight’ response.
What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Relaxes internal organs and decreases bodily activities
This system is associated with ‘rest and digest’ functions.
What does the somatic nervous system transmit?
Information from receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS and directs muscles to act
The SNS has a voluntary effect, allowing conscious control of movements.
What are neurons?
Nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals.
How many neurons are in the human nervous system?
100 billion neurons.
What percentage of neurons are located in the brain?
80%.
What is the role of sensory neurons?
Carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain.
Where are the receptors of sensory neurons located?
On or near the body’s surface.
What is the axon length of sensory neurons?
Short.
What is the dendrite length of sensory neurons?
Long.
What is the role of relay neurons?
Allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate with each other.
Where are relay neurons primarily located?
Brain, spinal cord, and visual system.
What is the axon length of relay neurons?
Short.
What is the dendrite length of relay neurons?
Short.
What is the role of motor neurons?
Carry nerve impulses from the spinal cord and brain to the effectors (muscles and glands).
Where are motor neuron axons linked?
Directly or indirectly linked to muscles.
What is the axon length of motor neurons?
Long.
What is the dendrite length of motor neurons?
Short.
What is the first step in the process of synaptic transmission?
An electrical impulse travels down a pre-synaptic neuron, along the axon, to the terminal branches.
What do synaptic vesicles contain?
Neurotransmitters.
What happens when neurotransmitters are released?
They travel across the synaptic cleft.
What is the ‘lock and key’ model in synaptic transmission?
The receptors on the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron are known as the lock, and the neurotransmitters are the key.
What determines if an electrical impulse is created in the post-synaptic neuron?
Whether the neurotransmitters are excitatory or inhibitory.
What is reuptake in the context of neurotransmitters?
The process when the neurotransmitter is taken back up by the pre-synaptic neuron.
What is synaptic transmission?
The process of neurotransmitters being released and binding to receptors.
What are the effects of excitatory neurotransmitters?
Increase the likelihood of a neuron firing.
What is an example of an excitatory neurotransmitter?
Noradrenaline.
What happens to the post-synaptic neuron when inhibitory neurotransmitters are present?
The neuron becomes negatively charged and less likely to fire.
What is an example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter?
Serotonin.
What is summation in the context of neurotransmission?
The process of summing excitatory and inhibitory influences on a post-synaptic neuron.
What triggers the action potential in the post-synaptic neuron?
If the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals reaches the threshold.
How do drugs affect synaptic transmission?
By increasing or decreasing the amount of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft.
What is the role of the pituitary gland?
Controls the release of hormones from all other glands in the body.
What hormone do the testes release?
Testosterone.
What hormone do the ovaries release?
Oestrogen.
What hormone is released by the adrenal gland?
Adrenaline.
What is the impact of adrenaline?
Stimulates the fight or flight response.
Fill in the blank: The endocrine system works alongside the _______ system to control vital functions.
[nervous]
True or False: The endocrine system works more quickly than the nervous system.
False.
What is the fight or flight response?
The way an animal responds when stressed, preparing to fight or flee
It is a reflexive response that occurs without conscious awareness or thought.
Which systems work together during the fight or flight response?
The endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The ANS consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
What does the hypothalamus do in response to a threat?
Recognizes the threat in the environment
This triggers the activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
What hormone is released by the pituitary gland during the fight or flight response?
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
ACTH signals the adrenal glands to release adrenaline.
What is the role of adrenaline in the fight or flight response?
It stimulates physiological changes to prepare the body for action
Adrenaline travels via the bloodstream to target organs.
What happens to the body once the threat has passed?
The parasympathetic nervous system brings the body back to its normal resting state
This helps restore balance after the stress response.
What is adrenaline?
A hormone produced by the adrenal glands as part of the stress response system
It primarily affects the cardiovascular system.
List the biological changes associated with the sympathetic state when adrenaline is present.
- Increased heart rate
- Increased breathing rate
- Dilated pupils
- Inhibited digestion
- Inhibited saliva production
- Contracted rectum
List the biological changes associated with the parasympathetic state when adrenaline is not present.
- Decreased heart rate
- Decreased breathing rate
- Constricted pupils
- Stimulated digestion
- Stimulated saliva production
- Relaxed rectum
True or False: The fight or flight response is a conscious reaction to stress.
False
It is a reflexive response that occurs without conscious thought.
What do fMRIs detect to indicate increased neural activity?
Changes in blood oxygenation and blood flow
This is known as the ‘haemodynamic response’.
What do fMRIs produce to show brain activity?
Three-dimensional images (activation maps)
These maps show which parts of the brain are involved in particular mental processes.
What do EEGs record?
Changes in electrical activity using electrodes attached to the scalp
EEGs provide an overall account of brain activity from millions of neurons.
What can unusual arrhythmic patterns in EEGs indicate?
Neurological abnormalities, e.g., epilepsy
What do ERPs record?
Changes in electrical activity using electrodes, related to a specific stimulus
ERPs filter out extraneous brain activity to focus on responses to specific tasks.
What is the purpose of post-mortem examinations?
To examine abnormalities in the structure of the brain and explain psychological abnormalities
They may involve comparison with a neurotypical brain.
What significant event happened to Phineas Gage in 1848?
A metre-length pole passed through his skull, damaging his left frontal lobe
This incident changed his personality, suggesting the frontal lobe’s role in mood regulation.
What did Paul Broca and Karl Wernicke contribute to neuroscience?
They discovered that specific areas of the brain are associated with particular functions
This led to the development of the localisation of function theory.
What does the holistic theory of the brain propose?
All parts of the brain are involved in the processing of thought and action
What separates the two hemispheres of the brain?
The cerebral cortex
The cortex is about 3mm thick and is more developed in humans compared to other animals.
Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex.
- Frontal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe
- Temporal lobe
What is the role of the motor cortex?
Controls voluntary movement in the contralateral side of the body
The complexity of movement dictates the number of neurons needed.
Where is the somatosensory cortex located?
At the front of the parietal lobe
What does the somatosensory cortex represent?
Sensory information from the skin (touch, heat, pressure)
What is the consequence of damage to the visual cortex?
Loss of specific areas of the visual field
What is the role of the auditory cortex?
Analyses speech-based information
Where is Wernicke’s area located?
In the left temporal lobe
What happens when Wernicke’s area is damaged?
People produce nonsense words; speech is fluent but meaningless
What is the role of Broca’s area?
Responsible for speech production
What is a consequence of damage to Broca’s area?
Slow speech that lacks fluency
What are Broca and Wernicke’s areas examples of?
Localisation
In which hemisphere do Broca and Wernicke’s areas occur?
Left hemisphere
What is the term for something specialised to one hemisphere?
Hemispheric lateralisation
What does plasticity refer to in the context of the brain?
The brain’s tendency to change and adapt due to experience and new learning
At what age do the number of synaptic connections in the brain peak?
2-3 years
What process involves the deletion of rarely used connections in the brain?
Synaptic pruning
What is the role of the hippocampus according to Maguire et al. (2000)?
Facilitate spatial memory in the form of navigation
What was the aim of Maguire et al.’s study on taxi drivers?
To examine structural changes in the brain due to extensive experience of spatial navigation
How many taxi drivers participated in Maguire et al.’s study?
16 right-handed male taxi drivers
What significant finding was reported in the brains of taxi drivers compared to controls?
Increased grey matter in the right and left hippocampi
What correlation was found in Maguire et al.’s study?
Between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and volume in the right posterior hippocampus
What was the main conclusion of Kuhn (2014) regarding video game training?
It resulted in new synaptic connections in brain areas associated with skills important for playing the game
What changes were observed in the brains of individuals who practiced meditation according to Davidson et al. (2004)?
Greater activation of gamma waves in practitioners compared to non-practitioners
What did Lazar et al. (2005) find regarding the cortex of experienced meditators?
They had a thicker cortex than non-meditators
What increase in grey matter was found in individuals who participated in Holzel et al.’s (2011) mindfulness course?
Increase in grey matter in the left hippocampus
What effect did four weeks of meditation have according to Tang et al. (2012)?
Increased white matter in the anterior cingulate cortex
What is functional recovery in the context of neuroscience?
The brain’s ability to redistribute functions to undamaged areas after trauma
What is spontaneous recovery?
Quick recovery of function after brain damage
What is axonal sprouting?
The growth of new nerve endings connecting with undamaged nerve cells
What occurs during denervation supersensitivity?
Axons become aroused to a higher level to compensate for lost functions
What is one factor that affects functional recovery after brain trauma?
Perseverance
What is lateralisation?
The idea that the two brain hemispheres are functionally different
What does damage to the left hemisphere typically impair?
Language abilities
What visual field is processed by the right hemisphere?
Left visual field
What is the primary role of the left hemisphere?
Speech and language
In split brain patients, what happens to the two hemispheres?
They operate independently
What phenomenon allows split brain patients to draw an image shown in the left visual field?
Using their left hand, which is controlled by the right hemisphere
Which hemisphere is dominant for recognizing faces?
Right hemisphere
What are biological rhythms?
Cyclical changes in biological systems
What are endogenous pacemakers?
Internal body clocks regulating biological rhythms
What is a circadian rhythm?
Any cycle that lasts about 24 hours
What is the strongest sleep drive time?
2-4 am and 1-3 pm
What was Siffre’s finding about his circadian rhythm during his underground studies?
It extended to around 25 hours
What did Aschoff and Wever (1976) find regarding participants in the bunker?
Circadian rhythms extended between 24 and 25 hours
What did Folkard et al. (1985) study in their dark cave experiment?
The effects of a fixed clock time on biological rhythms
What is the typical range of circadian rhythm observed in participants?
Between 24 and 25 hours
An anomalous participant had a cycle extended to 29 hours.
What role do exogenous zeitgebers play in circadian rhythms?
They entrain humans’ circadian rhythms to the 24-hour day
Examples include the number of daylight hours and typical mealtimes.
What did Folkard et al. (1985) study involve?
12 people living in a dark cave for 3 weeks
They went to bed at 11.45pm and woke at 7.45am, but the clock was sped up.
What was the outcome of Folkard et al.’s study regarding circadian rhythm?
Only one participant adjusted to a shorter day
This suggests a strong free-running circadian rhythm.
Which hormone is produced and released from the pineal gland?
Melatonin
Melatonin encourages feelings of sleep.
When is melatonin production highest?
When it is dark
Less melatonin is produced when it is light.
What is the lowest body temperature recorded and at what time?
36 degrees centigrade at about 4.30am
It varies up to 38 degrees centigrade by 6pm.
What happens to body temperature during sleep?
It drops
This drop in temperature is associated with sleep onset.
What occurs to body temperature during the last few hours of sleep?
It rises
This rise causes people to feel alert in the morning.
What time frame can cause small drops in body temperature leading to sleepiness?
Between 2 and 4 pm
This accounts for afternoon sleepiness.
How does body temperature influence cognitive performance?
Warmer internal temperature improves cognitive performance
Studies show better recall and comprehension at warmer temperatures.
What did Folkard et al. (1977) find regarding story recall in children?
Children showed superior recall when stories were read at 3pm
Compared to those who heard stories at 9am.
What did Gupta (1991) discover about IQ test performance?
Improved performance at 7pm compared to 2pm and 9am
This indicates the influence of time of day on cognitive abilities.
What are endogenous pacemakers?
Internal body clocks that regulate biological rhythms
Example: Influence of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) on the sleep/wake cycle
How do endogenous pacemakers function in relation to the environment?
They can function without environmental cues, but this alters the circadian rhythm
What is the purpose of resetting endogenous pacemakers?
To keep human bodies in synchrony with the outside world
What is the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)?
The most influential endogenous pacemaker in the human body
Where is the SCN located?
In the hypothalamus, above the optic chiasm
What role does the SCN play in circadian rhythms?
It maintains circadian rhythms and is regulated by light from the environment
What hormone does the pineal gland produce during the night?
Melatonin
What effect does melatonin have on the brain?
It induces sleep by inhibiting wakefulness mechanisms
What happens to melatonin production as light levels increase?
Melatonin production is decreased
What did DeCoursey et al. (2000) demonstrate about the SCN?
The SCN is crucial for regulating the sleep/wake cycle
What was the outcome of Ralph et al.’s (1990) experiment involving SCN transplantation?
Normal hamsters adopted a 20-hour sleep/wake cycle after receiving SCN cells from mutant hamsters
What did Morgan (1995) find regarding SCN neurons and circadian rhythms?
Transplanting SCN neurons from abnormal hamsters resulted in normal hamsters displaying a 20-hour circadian rhythm
What are exogenous zeitgebers?
External cues that impact or entrain biological rhythms
How do exogenous zeitgebers affect the human body?
They synchronize the body to the environment through entrainment
What is the primary function of light in relation to the SCN?
It resets the SCN and affects hormone secretion
What was the finding of Campbell and Murphy (1998) regarding light exposure?
Light exposure can produce significant deviations in sleep/wake cycles
What did Shih-Yu Lee et al. (2013) discover about bright light therapy?
It improved sleep quality in mothers of premature babies
What was the outcome of Steel et al. (2008) regarding constant daylight?
Participants developed a free-running sleep/wake cycle longer than 24 hours
What are social cues in the context of sleep/wake cycles?
Schedules imposed by society that influence sleep/wake behavior
How did Aschoff et al. (1971) demonstrate the role of social zeitgebers?
Individuals adjusted to the absence of natural light by responding to social cues
What did Klein and Wegmann (1974) find regarding air travelers and circadian rhythms?
Circadian rhythms adjusted more quickly when travelers were exposed to social cues
At what age do babies begin to establish circadian rhythms?
Around six weeks of age
When do babies’ sleep/wake cycles typically become entrained by parental schedules?
By about 16 weeks of age
What are infradian rhythms?
Rhythms that have a duration greater than 24 hours, such as cycles lasting days, weeks, months, or annually.
What is an example of a weekly rhythm in humans?
The grouping of seven days into a unit called a ‘week’.
How do male testosterone levels vary in relation to the weekly cycle?
Male testosterone levels are elevated at weekends.
What is the most common duration of the menstrual cycle?
28 days.
What is ovulation?
The release of an egg from the ovary, accompanied by an oestrogen peak for 16-32 hours.
What happens to the egg if pregnancy does not occur?
The egg is absorbed into the body and the womb lining comes away, resulting in menstrual flow.
What did Stern and McClintock (1998) investigate?
Whether menstrual cycles synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
What were the findings of Stern and McClintock’s study?
68% of women experienced changes to their cycle that brought them closer to the cycle of their ‘odour donor’.
What is Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?
A depressive disorder with a seasonal pattern of onset, often triggered during the winter months.
What role does melatonin play in Seasonal Affective Disorder?
During winter, lack of light prolongs melatonin secretion, which affects serotonin production linked to depressive symptoms.
What is the relationship between winter and heart attacks?
There is an increase in heart attacks during winter, with most deaths occurring in January.
What are ultradian rhythms?
Biological rhythms that last less than 24 hours, such as the sleep cycle.
How long does a complete sleep cycle last?
Approximately 90 minutes.
What characterizes stages 1 and 2 of sleep?
Light sleep where the person can be easily woken, characterized by alpha waves and sleep spindles.
What is deep sleep also known as?
Slow wave sleep.
What happens during REM sleep?
The body is paralysed, brain activity speeds up, and dreaming occurs.
What is the Basic Rest Activity Cycle?
A 90-minute cycle during the day where individuals move from alertness to physiological fatigue.
How do breaks relate to the Basic Rest Activity Cycle?
The human mind can focus for about 90 minutes, leading to a natural need for breaks afterward.
Fill in the blank: The menstrual cycle varies between ______ days.
23 and 36
True or False: The evidence for weekly infradian rhythms in humans is strong.
False
What hormone helps the womb lining grow thicker after ovulation?
Progesterone.
