Research Methods: Key Features Of Science Part 2

Question 1

Outline Paradigms

Answer 1

• Developed by philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn, to describe how scientific knowledge develops overtime.
• According to Kuhn, a paradigm refers to the set of beliefs shared by researchers within a scientific discipline in a particular period. (E.g beliefs shared by 19th century biologists, such as theoretical ideas and assumptions).
• Eg. The Cognitive paradigm. m. Researchers
  within this paradigm share concepts (e.g., the computer model and internal mental
  processes), practices (e.g., making inferences from experiments about the functions
  of internal mental processes) and research problems (explaining how information
  flows through various internal mental processes)

Question 2

Outline Paradigm shifts.

Answer 2

• Kuhn proposed that scientific knowledge within a field, advances rapidly during so called paradigm shifts.
• A paradigm shift is a fundamental change in the underlying assumptions, theories or methodologies that guide a scientific discipline or field of study.
• Paradigm shifts occur when the existing paradigm can no longer adequately explain new evidence or solve emerging problems.
• An example of paradigm shift in the field of psychology is the cognitive revolution of the 1960s, which led to a change in the assumptions and methods of psychology. This involved a shift from the behaviourist assumption that the mind was a black box
  to an assumption that the mind is like a computer, and can be investigated
  scientifically. This is an example of a paradigm shift as psychology has shifted from one dominant set of assumptions to another.

Question 3

Explain the cyclical pattern of scientific knowledge.

Answer 3

1. Pre science a field is not yet fully developed because it lacks a
   shared paradigm (i.e., researchers disagree on key issues such as methods, assumptions, and core theories). During this phase, scientific knowledge develops slowly, if at all. Kuhn suggested that in the 1960s, the social sciences (including psychology) were still in this stage of development.
2. Nominal phase : where researchers within the field establish a shared
   paradigm. Once this occurs, the field no longer returns to the pre-science phase (as shown in
   Kuhn’s model, where pre-science sits outside the cycle). During the normal science phase,
   researchers make steady progress by working within the established paradigm. They focus on solving problems that fit within the paradigm’s framework, using traditional methods and
   assumptions.
3. Model drift : researchers start to encounter evidence that doesn’t align with the
   existing paradigm. As these anomalies grow more significant and frequent, a model crisis
   develops, where there is a growing recognition that the current paradigm is inadequate to explain the observed data.
4. Model revolution: researchers develop an alternative paradigm that involves a
   fundamental rethinking of the assumptions of the old paradigm.
5. Paradigm shift: the discipline adopts the new paradigm, leading to rapid
   advancements in scientific knowledge. After the paradigm shift, the field re-enters the phase of normal science, and the cycle continues

Question 4

What is a strength of modern psychological research?

Answer 4

It is scientific as it makes use of the empirical method and the collection of objective evidence. For example, Milgrams study of obedience involved testing whether participants would respond to an order by delivering an electric shock. Since this study involves the observation of whether participants obey by providing an electric shock, it is clearly using the empirical method. Moreover, the evidence of whether the participants obeyed is objective. This is clear as Milgram collected data on the level of shock each participant delivered. Since this data was quantitative, it required minimal interpretation to determine the level of obedience of the different participants. However, not all psychological research is conducted using objective evidence. For example, humanistic researchers, deliberately made use of qualitative methods that produced subjective evidence (e.g., Maslow developed his hierarchy of needs using biographical analysis, a method in which he subjectively analysed biographies of people he believed had self-actualized).

Question 5

What is one argument against psychology being scientific?

Answer 5

Some psychological research lacks replicability. For example, Freud’s psychodynamic approach made extensive use of the case study (e.g., the case study of Little Hans). Given that case studies involve the study of unusual individuals, they are inherently difficult to replicate. This means other researchers have been unable to replicate Freud’s original research. However, the Freud’s approach to psychological research is outdated. Today, the vast majority of
psychological research at least has the potential to be replicated.

Question 6

What is a strength of psychological knowledge?

Answer 6

Psychological knowledge is scientific as it is falsifiable. For example, Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning led to clearly testable hypotheses (e.g.,
‘The rats which are rewarded after pressing the lever will press the lever more than the rats which
aren’t rewarded’). Psychological theories like operant conditioning are clearly falsifiable as they produce
hypotheses that can be empirically tested. The potential results of such a test could falsify the
theory. For example, if Skinner’s unrewarded rats were to have pressed the lever more than the
rewarded rats, this would have clearly falsified his theory of operant conditioning through positive
reinforcement. However, not all psychological approaches adopt this approach. For example, the humanistic approach is quite deliberately unscientific, so its theories do not lead to testable hypotheses. If not all psychological approaches lead to testable hypotheses, then not all
psychological theories are falsifiable.