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Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Define operationalism

A

The process of making variables quantifiable

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2
Q

What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis?

A

An aim is what you hope to achieve from an experiment whereas a hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of your experiment

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3
Q

Define internal validity

A

The extent to which evidence supports the experiment within the context of the experiment

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4
Q

Define external validity

A

The extent to which evidence supports the experiment outside of the context of the experiment

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5
Q

What is the experimental method?

A 
Observation
Hypothesis
Designing a study
Collecting data
Analysing data
Questioning validity
Drawing a conclusion
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6
Q

What are the 3 types of internal validity?

A

Control
-> did the IV affect the DV or was it something else?
Construct
-> how logical is the hypothesis - does an existing theory disprove it?
Mundane Realism
-> how realistic is it?

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7
Q

What are the 3 types of external validity?

A

Ecological Validity
-> can it be generalised to different settings / places?
Population Validity
-> can it be generalised to different ppl / populations?
Historical Validity
-> can it be generalised to different times in history?

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8
Q

What are the 4 types of experiment?

A 
Lab:
-> IV + DV both controlled
Field:
-> IV controlled, DV not
Quasi:
-> DV controlled, IV not
Natural:
-> neither controlled
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9
Q

Define investigator bias

A

any cues from the investigator (not the IV) that encourages certain behaviours from the participant

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10
Q

Define demand characteristics

A

the participants are aware of the aims of the study and change their behaviour as a result

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11
Q

What are the 4 principles of the BPS code of ethics?

A

Respect
Competence
Responsibility
Integrity

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12
Q

Define social desirability bias

A

When participants alter their behaviour to seem more socially desirable -> biasing the results

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13
Q

Define extraneous variables

A

Any characteristic of a participant that may affect the DV

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14
Q

Define confounding variables

A

A feature of the research situation that may affect a participant’s behaviour

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15
Q

Define the Hawthorne effect

A

The tendency for participants to alter their behaviour because they know that they are being observed

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16
Q

Define sampling

A

The process of selecting a group to study

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17
Q

Define target population

A

The group of people that a researcher is interested in

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18
Q

What are the 5 sampling methods

A 
Volunteer
Opportunity
Random
Systematic
Stratified
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19
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

When researchers their experiment and accept volunteers as participants

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20
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

When researchers ask the most conveniently found people to participate

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21
Q

What is random sampling?

A

When the researcher obtains a list of people and randomly selects a group of participants using computer algorithms

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22
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Where a researcher gains a list of a population, assigns each person a number and selects every nth person

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23
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

When levels of the target population are identified (stratas) and then participants are selected randomly

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24
Q

Which are the most valid types of sampling?

A 
Invalid to Valid:
Volunteer
Opportunity
Random
Systematic
Stratified
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25
What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
- > gives access to a variety of participants - > requires little effort - > less chance of the 'screw you' phenomenon
26
What are the weaknesses of volunteer sampling?
- > sample is biased because participants are likely to be one particular aspect of the population - > volunteers are eager to please which increases chances of demand characteristics
27
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
Easiest -> just have to take the first suitable participants you can find
28
What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
Inevitably biased because sample is drawn from a small part of the population and therefore cannot be generalised
29
What are the strengths of random sampling?
- > Unbiased as all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected - > sample should be fairly representative
30
What are the weaknesses of random sampling?
- > need to have a list of all members of the population and then contact all of those selected, takes time - > unbiased selection doesn't always guarantee an unbiased sample
31
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
- > unbiased as all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected - > sample should be fairly representative
32
What are the weaknesses of systematic sampling?
- > need to have a list of all members of the population and then contact all of those selected, takes time - > the process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the population (eg every 5th person lives in a flat)
33
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
- > unbiased as participants are selected using an objective system - > likely to be more representative than other methods because there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of subgroups
34
What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?
- > requires detailed knowledge of the population | - > very time consuming
35
When are directional hypotheses used?
When we have enough information from past research | They predict what will happen due to the IV
36
When are non-directional hypotheses used?
When we cannot be sure what will happen | They predict something will happen due to the IV
37
Define correlation
Correlations systematically show how strong a relationship is between 2 continuous co-variables
38
When are correlations used?
- > it would be unethical to do an experiment - > it is impractical to manipulate the variables - > no other methods are available
39
Define the 3rd variable problem
When there appears to be a casual relationship but there is actually a 3rd variable affecting the result
40
Define the correlation coefficient
The strength and direction of a correlation ``` -1 = perfectly negative 0 = no correlation 1 = perfectly positive ```
41
What are the types of observation?
Naturalistic or controlled Covert or overt Participant or non-participant
42
Define a naturalistic observation
Nothing about the setting is changed Usually watching infants or animal interactions More ecologically valid than controlled
43
Define controlled observation
We change / control the situation eg Bandura's bobo dolls Less extraneous variables than naturalistic
44
Define covert observation
Participants are unaware that they are being watched Ethical issues - deception, informed consent More natural, realistic behaviour can be observed
45
Define overt observation
Participants know that they are being watched We try to be subtle but they know we're there We can ask for informed consent May cause demand characteristics
46
Define participant observation
Observer is part of the group that they're watching Investigator effects and confounding variables more likely Observer gains insights Subjects may become aware of study
47
Define a non-participant observation
The observer watches from a distance Less investigator effects + confounding variables Less valid as less data than experiencing it themselves
48
Define self reports
Any technique where the data that's collected comes directly from the participant eg questionnaires or interviews
49
Define a structured interview
All questions are pre-determined No deviation from the list of questions Results are recorded exactly
50
What are the advantages of structured interviews?
More fair, unbiased and reliable | Easily repeatable as questions never change
51
What are the disadvantages of structured interviews?
Less valid Less detail and less exploration of the participant's thoughts Lower reliability if interviewer treats participants differently Social desirability bias
52
Define an unstructured interview
General targets for discussion -> not predetermined questions Interviewer free to make decisions Similar to clinical interviews
53
What are the advantages of unstructured interviews?
Details can be explored -> allows access to what people really think More valid
54
What are the disadvantages of unstructured interviews?
High risk of investigator bias -> interviewer's expectations could affect answers given All interviewers must be skilled and trained High risk of social desirability bias
55
What are the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires?
Advantages: - > respondents may feel more willing to reveal personal info - > once designed + tested, can be distributed quickly + cheaply - > impersonal nature reduces social desirability bias Disadvantages: -> data collection limited by sampling bias -> only people willing and with spare time will complete
56
What are the advantages and disadvantages of open questions?
Advantages: - > respondents can expand on answers - > provide unexpected answers, gaining new insights into thoughts + behaviours Disadvantages: - > can be hard to understand answers - > difficult to summarise - > social desirability bias
57
What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed questions?
Advantages: -> quantitative data is hard to analyse Disadvantages: - > limited range of answers - > demand characteristics - > may result in false / best fit answers - > acquiescence bias
58
Define primary data
Information that is observed first hand
59
Define secondary data
Information that doesn't come directly from the source
60
What are the 3 measures of central tendency?
Mean Median Mode
61
What are the 2 measures of dispersion?
Range | Standard deviation
62
Define inferential statistics
Interpreting the meaning in relation to your hypothesis
63
What techniques are used in inferential statistics?
Correlation Graphical display Parametric and non-parametric difference tests
64
Define standard deviation
The average distance from the centre
65
What are the 4 levels of data / measurement?
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
66
Define nominal data
Data that can be put into discrete categories
67
Define ordinal data
Data that can be put into orders
68
Define interval data
Data in categories that can be divided into subsections
69
Define ratio data
Data in no categories and decimal format
70
What data can be used in parametric tests?
- > interval or ratio data - > data that can normally distributed (no outliers) - > similarity of variance is essential
71
What data can be used in non-parametric tests?
- > nominal or ordinal data | - > data must be transformed
72
What does a statistical test calculate?
The probability that chance has caused a difference
73
What confidence level is most commonly looked for?
p < 0.05 or 95%
74
Define the sign test
Used with repeated measures or matched pairs design When we are looking for the difference in scores Non-parametric test -> nominal data
75
Define an alternate hypothesis
A significant difference has been found
76
Define a null hypothesis
A significant difference has not been found
77
Define a type 1 error
A false positive result -> accepting the alternate hypothesis instead of the null hypothesis
78
Define a type 2 error
A false negative result -> accepting the null hypothesis instead of the alternate hypothesis
79
What are the 4 stages of the sign test?
1. is the hypothesis directional or non-directional? 2. signs -> + or - 3. S/N variables 4. Match to confidence level
80
How can reliability be tested?
By repeating the experiment and seeing if the results are the same as before.

Psychology AS (16 decks)

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