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Psychology AS > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Define operationalism

A

The process of making variables quantifiable

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2
Q

What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis?

A

An aim is what you hope to achieve from an experiment whereas a hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of your experiment

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3
Q

Define internal validity

A

The extent to which evidence supports the experiment within the context of the experiment

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4
Q

Define external validity

A

The extent to which evidence supports the experiment outside of the context of the experiment

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5
Q

What is the experimental method?

A 
Observation
Hypothesis
Designing a study
Collecting data
Analysing data
Questioning validity
Drawing a conclusion
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6
Q

What are the 3 types of internal validity?

A

Control
-> did the IV affect the DV or was it something else?
Construct
-> how logical is the hypothesis - does an existing theory disprove it?
Mundane Realism
-> how realistic is it?

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7
Q

What are the 3 types of external validity?

A

Ecological Validity
-> can it be generalised to different settings / places?
Population Validity
-> can it be generalised to different ppl / populations?
Historical Validity
-> can it be generalised to different times in history?

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8
Q

What are the 4 types of experiment?

A 
Lab:
-> IV + DV both controlled
Field:
-> IV controlled, DV not
Quasi:
-> DV controlled, IV not
Natural:
-> neither controlled
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9
Q

Define investigator bias

A

any cues from the investigator (not the IV) that encourages certain behaviours from the participant

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10
Q

Define demand characteristics

A

the participants are aware of the aims of the study and change their behaviour as a result

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11
Q

What are the 4 principles of the BPS code of ethics?

A

Respect
Competence
Responsibility
Integrity

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12
Q

Define social desirability bias

A

When participants alter their behaviour to seem more socially desirable -> biasing the results

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13
Q

Define extraneous variables

A

Any characteristic of a participant that may affect the DV

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14
Q

Define confounding variables

A

A feature of the research situation that may affect a participant’s behaviour

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15
Q

Define the Hawthorne effect

A

The tendency for participants to alter their behaviour because they know that they are being observed

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16
Q

Define sampling

A

The process of selecting a group to study

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17
Q

Define target population

A

The group of people that a researcher is interested in

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18
Q

What are the 5 sampling methods

A 
Volunteer
Opportunity
Random
Systematic
Stratified
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19
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

When researchers their experiment and accept volunteers as participants

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20
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

When researchers ask the most conveniently found people to participate

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21
Q

What is random sampling?

A

When the researcher obtains a list of people and randomly selects a group of participants using computer algorithms

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22
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Where a researcher gains a list of a population, assigns each person a number and selects every nth person

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23
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

When levels of the target population are identified (stratas) and then participants are selected randomly

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24
Q

Which are the most valid types of sampling?

A 
Invalid to Valid:
Volunteer
Opportunity
Random
Systematic
Stratified
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25
Q

What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?

A
  • > gives access to a variety of participants
  • > requires little effort
  • > less chance of the ‘screw you’ phenomenon
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26
Q

What are the weaknesses of volunteer sampling?

A
  • > sample is biased because participants are likely to be one particular aspect of the population
  • > volunteers are eager to please which increases chances of demand characteristics
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27
Q

What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?

A

Easiest -> just have to take the first suitable participants you can find

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28
Q

What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?

A

Inevitably biased because sample is drawn from a small part of the population and therefore cannot be generalised

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29
Q

What are the strengths of random sampling?

A
  • > Unbiased as all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
  • > sample should be fairly representative
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30
Q

What are the weaknesses of random sampling?

A
  • > need to have a list of all members of the population and then contact all of those selected, takes time
  • > unbiased selection doesn’t always guarantee an unbiased sample
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31
Q

What are the strengths of systematic sampling?

A
  • > unbiased as all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
  • > sample should be fairly representative
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32
Q

What are the weaknesses of systematic sampling?

A
  • > need to have a list of all members of the population and then contact all of those selected, takes time
  • > the process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the population (eg every 5th person lives in a flat)
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33
Q

What are the strengths of stratified sampling?

A
  • > unbiased as participants are selected using an objective system
  • > likely to be more representative than other methods because there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of subgroups
34
Q

What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?

A
  • > requires detailed knowledge of the population

- > very time consuming

35
Q

When are directional hypotheses used?

A

When we have enough information from past research

They predict what will happen due to the IV

36
Q

When are non-directional hypotheses used?

A

When we cannot be sure what will happen

They predict something will happen due to the IV

37
Q

Define correlation

A

Correlations systematically show how strong a relationship is between 2 continuous co-variables

38
Q

When are correlations used?

A
  • > it would be unethical to do an experiment
  • > it is impractical to manipulate the variables
  • > no other methods are available
39
Q

Define the 3rd variable problem

A

When there appears to be a casual relationship but there is actually a 3rd variable affecting the result

40
Q

Define the correlation coefficient

A

The strength and direction of a correlation

-1 = perfectly negative
0 = no correlation
1 = perfectly positive
41
Q

What are the types of observation?

A

Naturalistic or controlled
Covert or overt
Participant or non-participant

42
Q

Define a naturalistic observation

A

Nothing about the setting is changed
Usually watching infants or animal interactions
More ecologically valid than controlled

43
Q

Define controlled observation

A

We change / control the situation
eg Bandura’s bobo dolls
Less extraneous variables than naturalistic

44
Q

Define covert observation

A

Participants are unaware that they are being watched
Ethical issues - deception, informed consent
More natural, realistic behaviour can be observed

45
Q

Define overt observation

A

Participants know that they are being watched
We try to be subtle but they know we’re there
We can ask for informed consent
May cause demand characteristics

46
Q

Define participant observation

A

Observer is part of the group that they’re watching
Investigator effects and confounding variables more likely
Observer gains insights
Subjects may become aware of study

47
Q

Define a non-participant observation

A

The observer watches from a distance
Less investigator effects + confounding variables
Less valid as less data than experiencing it themselves

48
Q

Define self reports

A

Any technique where the data that’s collected comes directly from the participant

eg questionnaires or interviews

49
Q

Define a structured interview

A

All questions are pre-determined
No deviation from the list of questions
Results are recorded exactly

50
Q

What are the advantages of structured interviews?

A

More fair, unbiased and reliable

Easily repeatable as questions never change

51
Q

What are the disadvantages of structured interviews?

A

Less valid
Less detail and less exploration of the participant’s thoughts
Lower reliability if interviewer treats participants differently
Social desirability bias

52
Q

Define an unstructured interview

A

General targets for discussion -> not predetermined questions
Interviewer free to make decisions
Similar to clinical interviews

53
Q

What are the advantages of unstructured interviews?

A

Details can be explored -> allows access to what people really think
More valid

54
Q

What are the disadvantages of unstructured interviews?

A

High risk of investigator bias -> interviewer’s expectations could affect answers given
All interviewers must be skilled and trained
High risk of social desirability bias

55
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires?

A

Advantages:

  • > respondents may feel more willing to reveal personal info
  • > once designed + tested, can be distributed quickly + cheaply
  • > impersonal nature reduces social desirability bias

Disadvantages:
-> data collection limited by sampling bias -> only people willing and with spare time will complete

56
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of open questions?

A

Advantages:

  • > respondents can expand on answers
  • > provide unexpected answers, gaining new insights into thoughts + behaviours

Disadvantages:

  • > can be hard to understand answers
  • > difficult to summarise
  • > social desirability bias
57
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed questions?

A

Advantages:
-> quantitative data is hard to analyse

Disadvantages:

  • > limited range of answers
  • > demand characteristics
  • > may result in false / best fit answers
  • > acquiescence bias
58
Q

Define primary data

A

Information that is observed first hand

59
Q

Define secondary data

A

Information that doesn’t come directly from the source

60
Q

What are the 3 measures of central tendency?

A

Mean
Median
Mode

61
Q

What are the 2 measures of dispersion?

A

Range

Standard deviation

62
Q

Define inferential statistics

A

Interpreting the meaning in relation to your hypothesis

63
Q

What techniques are used in inferential statistics?

A

Correlation
Graphical display
Parametric and non-parametric difference tests

64
Q

Define standard deviation

A

The average distance from the centre

65
Q

What are the 4 levels of data / measurement?

A

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

66
Q

Define nominal data

A

Data that can be put into discrete categories

67
Q

Define ordinal data

A

Data that can be put into orders

68
Q

Define interval data

A

Data in categories that can be divided into subsections

69
Q

Define ratio data

A

Data in no categories and decimal format

70
Q

What data can be used in parametric tests?

A
  • > interval or ratio data
  • > data that can normally distributed (no outliers)
  • > similarity of variance is essential
71
Q

What data can be used in non-parametric tests?

A
  • > nominal or ordinal data

- > data must be transformed

72
Q

What does a statistical test calculate?

A

The probability that chance has caused a difference

73
Q

What confidence level is most commonly looked for?

A

p < 0.05 or 95%

74
Q

Define the sign test

A

Used with repeated measures or matched pairs design
When we are looking for the difference in scores
Non-parametric test -> nominal data

75
Q

Define an alternate hypothesis

A

A significant difference has been found

76
Q

Define a null hypothesis

A

A significant difference has not been found

77
Q

Define a type 1 error

A

A false positive result -> accepting the alternate hypothesis instead of the null hypothesis

78
Q

Define a type 2 error

A

A false negative result -> accepting the null hypothesis instead of the alternate hypothesis

79
Q

What are the 4 stages of the sign test?

A
  1. is the hypothesis directional or non-directional?
  2. signs -> + or -
  3. S/N variables
  4. Match to confidence level
80
Q

How can reliability be tested?

A

By repeating the experiment and seeing if the results are the same as before.

Psychology AS (16 decks)

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