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A LEVEL > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Lab experiment

A

Conducted in a very controlled environment.

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2
Q

Quasi experiment

A

Experimenter does not manipulate the IV. The IV is naturally occurring. This may be in a lab or field.

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3
Q

Field experiment

A

Carried out in someone’s natural environment/ everyday surroundings.

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4
Q

Advantages of a lab experiment

A
  • highly controlled with reduced EVs
  • replicable
  • more objective
  • see cause and effect
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5
Q

Disadvantages of a lab experiment

A
  • low in ecological validity

- may cause demand characteristics

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6
Q

Advantages of a quasi experiment

A
  • allows for research where the IV can’t be manipulated

- high in ecological validity, looking as ‘real’ problems

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7
Q

Disadvantages of a quasi experiment

A
  • no control of IV
  • less control of EVs (low validity)
  • participants are aware they are studied (low validity)
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8
Q

Advantages of a field experiment

A
  • high in ecological validity
  • natural behaviour
  • avoids demand characteristics and research bias/effects (high validity)
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9
Q

Disadvantages of a field experiment

A
  • less control of EVs
  • more time consuming
  • ethical issues
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10
Q

Independent measures

A

Participants allocated to 2+ experimental groups, representing the different levels of the IV.

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11
Q

Advantages of Independent measures

A
  • avoids order effects

- avoids the aim of the experiment being guessed (DM)

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12
Q

Disadvantages of Independent measures

A
  • no control of participant variables

- more participants are needed

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13
Q

Repeated measures

A

Participants receive both parts of the IV. There may also be a control condition.

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14
Q

Advantages of Repeated measures

A
  • good control of participant variables

- fewer participants needed

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15
Q

Disadvantages of Repeated measures

A
  • order effects (but could be overcome but counterbalancing)

- purpose guessed (DM)

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16
Q

Matched pairs design

A

Participants receive one side of the IV but are matched with someone from the other groups on certain characteristics. Each group Is given one level of the IV.

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17
Q

Advantages of Matched pairs

A
  • acts as a control for participant variables

- avoids order effects

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18
Q

Disadvantages of Matched pairs

A
  • time consuming to match variables

- may not control all participant variables

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19
Q

Independent variable

A

The factor directly manipulated by the experimenter to oversee the effect on the variation of the DV. There are at least two levels of the IV.

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20
Q

Dependent variable

A

Measured by the experimenter to assess the effects on the IV.

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21
Q

Operationalisation

A

Defining the IV and DV in a way that they can be measured.

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22
Q

Confounding (extraneous) variables

A

Factors other than the IV that may cause a result.

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23
Q

Participant variables

A

A characteristic of the participants such as age or intelligence which could confound results.

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24
Q

Situational variables

A

A feature of the environment that may affect performance, such as a distracting noise or time of day.

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25
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Selecting people most easily available at the time.

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26
Q

Advantages of opportunity sampling

A
  • easy

- takes less time

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27
Q

Disadvantages of opportunity sampling

A

-bias as the sample is drawn from small part of the population

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28
Q

Self-selected sampling

A

Produced by asking for volunteers (in adverts).

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29
Q

Advantages of self-selected sampling

A
  • convenient as it finds willing participants

- lower attrition rate

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30
Q

Disadvantages of self-selected sampling

A

-volunteer bias as participants will be a certain type of person (have extra time/ motivated)

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31
Q

Random sampling

A

Every member of a target population has an equal chance of being selected.

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32
Q

Advantages of random sampling

A

-unbiased as all have an equal chance

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33
Q

Disadvantages of random sampling

A
  • more time consuming and effort as a lot of steps are required to contact people
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34
Q

Snowball sampling

A

Relies on referrals from initial participants to generate additional participants.

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35
Q

Advantages of snowball sampling

A

-hard to reach groups are easier to find (addicts)

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36
Q

Disadvantages of snowball sampling

A
  • not a good cross section (representation) of population as it friends of friends
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37
Q

Null hypothesis (H0)

A

IV has no significant effect on the DV.

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38
Q

Alternative hypothesis (H1)

A

IV has a significant effect on the DV.

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39
Q

One-tailed hypothesis

A

Predicts a direction of the difference in the hypothesis. (e.g. will increase likelihood)

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40
Q

Two-tailed hypothesis

A

Predicts there will be a difference in the hypothesis. (e.g. will have an effect on likelihood)

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41
Q

Structured observation and 1+/1-

A

System used to restrict and organise the collection of information.

+inter-rater reliability improved as measures can be more consistent
-observers may ‘see’ or ‘hear’ what they expect- research/observer bias

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42
Q

Unstructured observation and 2+/2-

A

Observer records all relevant behaviour but has no system.

+useful when behaviour is unpredictable
+used in pilot studies
-not relevant or important behaviours recorded
-hard to do and may miss behaviours whilst recording

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43
Q

Covert observation and +/-

A

Observations made without a participant’s knowledge.

+natural behaviour
-raises ethical issues

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44
Q

Overt observation and +/-

A

Participant aware they are being observed.

+avoids lack of informed consent
-behaviour altered- observer effect

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45
Q

Naturalistic observation and +/-

A

Everything left as usual. Environment unstructured but may use structured techniques.

+high ecological validity
+natural behaviour
-little control of variables

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46
Q

CONTROLLED observation and 1+/3-

A

Some variables are manipulated by the researcher. Environment set up potentially.

+control focuses on particular aspects of behaviour (objective)

  • feels unnatural
  • lacks ecological validity
  • vulnerable to demand characteristics.
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47
Q

Non-participant observation and +/-

A

Observer is not a participants in the behaviour being observed.

+increased objectivity because of psychological and psychological distance
-may misinterpret behaviour as an outsider which reduces validity

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48
Q

Participant observation and +/-

A

Observer is participant in the behaviour being observed.

+provides special insight into the behaviour
+monitor and record in closer detail
-objectivity reduced (observer bias)
-difficult to record un-obstructively in part of a group

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49
Q

Open questions and +/-

A

Invites respondent to provide own answers. Produces qualitative data.

\+rich detail
\+not restricted
\+increases validity
-difficult to draw conclusions 
-look for trends rather than descriptive statistics
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50
Q

Closed questions and +/-

A

Fixed number of possible answers. Produces quantitative data.

+easy to analyse
+easy to draw conclusions
-oversimplifies reality
-low validity as can’t express precise feelings

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51
Q

Questionnaires

A

Respondent can record their own answers. Questions predetermined. Leading questions should be avoided.

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52
Q

+/- of questionnaires

A

+can be repeated quick and easily
+more willing to reveal closer info than in an interview
-less thoughtful response
-bias sample as only certain type of people do them
-limited as predetermined

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53
Q

Rating scales and +/-

A

Respondents aske to give assessment of views using a scale.

+objective towards feelings/attitudes
+quantitative data easy to analyse and graph
-may avoid extremed and go for the middle
-not true feelings so low validity

54
Q

Likert scale

A

Indicated how much you agree or disagree. (very likely to very unlikely)

55
Q

Semantic differential scale

A

Measures attitude towards something (motivated to depressed)

56
Q

Interviews

A

Face-toface interaction which results in the collection of data.

57
Q

+/- of interviews

A

+reveal more info as they have less time to think than when writing
+more thoughtful reponses are encouraged
-restricted number of participants as time consuming
-expensive to employ a trained interviewer

58
Q

Structured interviews and +/-

A

Predetermined questions delivered by an interviewer.

+can be easily repeated
+easier to analyse as answers are predictable
-expectation may influence answer (interviewer bias)

59
Q

Unstructured/ semi-structured interviews and +/-

A

Some predetermined questions but new ones developed as interview proceeds or no questions are decided in advance.

+more detail
+can access info that may not have been revealed
-expensive as requires trained interviewer

60
Q

~

A

approximately

61
Q

Type 1 error

A

False positive.

Rejects the null hypothesis when it is true.

62
Q

Type 2 error

A

False negative.

Accepts the null hypothesis when it is not true.

63
Q

Structured observational techniques and 2+/2-

A

Systematic procedures put in place to be objective and rigorous.

+more accurate on behaviour (not rusting what people say they do)
+objective
-may ‘see’ what is expected (observer bias)
-can’t provide info on what people think or feel

64
Q

Behavioural categories and 3+/2-

What are they?

A

Separates a continuous stream of action into components, using a coding frame.

+important information isn’t overlooked
+easy to use
+increases inter-rater reliability
-may not cover all possibilities so to recorded (low validity)
-poorly designed coding frame reduced reliability

65
Q

Event sampling and 2+/2-

How is it carried out?

A

List of behavioural categories. Count behaviour which occurs in a specific period.

+useful with occasional behaviour
+more manageable than continual recording
-miss things if too much happens at once
- may not be representative

66
Q

Time sampling and 2+/2-

How is it carried out?

A

Record behaviour at regular intervals or at different times of day/month.

+good for time related behaviours
+more manageable way of recording than continual
-reduced validity as behaviour may occur outside of interval
-may not be representative

67
Q

Concurrent validity

A

Could you compare a new method which an already established one? Should find a positive correlation.

68
Q

Criterion validity

A

Does it allow you to predict future performance?

69
Q

Content validity

A

Does it look like it is measuring what it is supposed to be?

70
Q

Construct validity

A

Does it support to build on a theory?

71
Q

Internal validity

A

The researcher is testing what they intend to test.

72
Q

External validity

A

The extent to which results can be generalised to other people/settings.

73
Q

Mundane realism

A

Extent to which it was alike to the real world/life.

74
Q

Ecological validity

A

The ability to generalise results beyond the particular setting it is demonstrated in.

75
Q

Population validity

A

The extent to which results can be generalised to other groups of people.

76
Q

Internal reliability

A

Whether the procedure is consistent within itself.

77
Q

External reliability

A

Whether something varies from one time to another.

78
Q

Test-retest

A

The same test is given to the same participants on two occasions to see if the result is the same (external reliability.)

79
Q

Split-half method

A

Test is split, scores compared and if the results are similar it is reliable (internal reliability.)

80
Q

Inter-rater reliability

A

Consistence between two different interviewers/ observers (internal reliability.)

81
Q

Respect-Informed consent

A

Participants are given information concerning the nature and purpose of the study and their role in it.

82
Q

Respect- Right to withdraw

A

Participants should be told that they can stop participating if they are uncomfortable.

83
Q

Respect-Confidentiality

A

A participants right to have personal info protected thorough withholding their name or keeping their info safe.

84
Q

Respect- Privacy

A

Refers to a person’s right to control flow of information about themselves.

85
Q

Responsibility- Protection

A

Participants should not experience negative psychical effects or negative psychological effects.

86
Q

Responsibility- Debriefing

A

Post-research interview designed to inform about the true nature of a study. Restore the state they were on at the start.

87
Q

Integrity- Deception

A

Occurs when a participant is not told the true research aims or not told what they are required to do.

88
Q

Ethics committee

A

Groups of people who approve a study before it begins.

89
Q

Presumptive consent

A

Method of dealing with informed consent/ deception. Would they agree to take part?

90
Q

Correlation

A

Assess the degree to which two co-variables are related. Correlational analysis. Correlation coefficient describes to extent of correlation between the figures -1 and +1.

91
Q

Nominal data

A
  • results in categories
  • can calculate mode
  • display on bar chart or pie chart
92
Q

Ordinal data

A
  • ordering/ranking
  • eg scores on a test out of 100
  • can calculate median
  • plot on a bar graph
93
Q

Interval/ratio

A
  • classifies, order and specifies distance between each interval
  • can calculate mean
  • (interval can go below 0 e.g. temperature)
  • (ratio can be scores of a test which has a set maximum score)
  • tend to treat as ordinal in stats test
94
Q

Nominal

Independent measures

A

Chi squared-compare proportions of each category

95
Q

Nominal

Repeated measures

A

Sign test- difference between two conditions for the same person

96
Q

Nominal

Correlation/Association

A

Chi Squared-compare proportions of each category

97
Q

Ordinal

Independent measures

A

Mann Whitney U test-compares size of differences between ranked data

98
Q

Ordinal

Repeated measures

A

Wilcoxon Signed test-size of difference between conditions

99
Q

Ordinal

Correlation/Association

A

Spearman’s Rho Correlation -strength of relationship between variables

100
Q

Abstract

A

A brief summary of the whole report covering the aims/hypothesis, method, results and conclusions.

101
Q

Introduction

A

Relevant theories and background research discussed allowing the researcher’s own aims/ hypotheses to be put forward.

102
Q

Method

A

Includes: design,participants, materials, procedure.

103
Q

Results

A

Reports finding of the study and makes use of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

104
Q

Discussion

A

Summary of findings and possible explanations as well as possible issues with research and suggested improvements.

105
Q

References

A

Give detail on all research documents, journals, books used within the research.

106
Q

Appendices

A

Comprises all materials, raw data, full instruction or procedure details and statistical calculations.

107
Q

Peer review

A

By professionals in the same field.

  • allocation of research funding
  • publication in scientific journals
  • research rating of a university department
108
Q

Mean +/-

A

+sensitive measure as it reflects the values of all the stat in the final calculation

  • can’t be used with nominal data (used for interval/ratio)
  • can be unrepresentative of the numbers is there are extreme values
109
Q

Median +/-

A

+not affected by extreme scores (ordinal)

-does not reflect all values

110
Q

Mode +/-

A

+useful for data in categories (nominal)

-not a useful way of describing data when there are several modes

111
Q

Range +/-

A

+easy to calculate

  • affected by extreme values
  • fails to take into account the distribution of numbers
112
Q

Variance and SD +/-

A

+precise measure of dispersion
+not difficult to calculate
-may hide some of the extreme characteristics of the data

113
Q

Researcher bias

A

Expectations or beliefs may encourage certain behaviours in participants. This results in the researcher’s expectations being fulfilled.
(Observer bias= expectations affect what is recorded.)

114
Q

Researcher effect

A

Anything the researcher does which has an effect on the participant’s performance, other than what is intended.
(Observer effect= present of an observer may affect the behaviour.)

115
Q

Normal distribution curve

A

All the measures of central tendency are at the mid-point due to the nature of the variable which usually clusters here.
The curve is in a bell shape.

116
Q

Skewed distribution curve

A

Measures of central tendency are not the same.

Positive skew= scores are bunched towards left. The mode is to the left of the mean.

Negative skew= scores are bunched towards the right. The mode is to the right of the mean.

117
Q

Probability

A

A measure of likelihood that an event may occur.

118
Q

Significance

A

Indicates if results can be used to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative (if not, then the null is accepted).

119
Q

Significance level

A

Level of probability agreed to reject the null hypothesis, usually 0.05.

120
Q

Table of critical value

A

Table which tells you whether an observed value is significant or not. Different table for each inferential test.

121
Q

Correlation 3+/3-

A

+look at relationships between continuous variables
+can rule out a casual relationship
+strong correlation leads to further investigation
-cannot show cause and effect
-intervening variables can explain the link
-methods used to measure either co-variable may lack reliability or validity

122
Q

What does the VARIANCE + SD tell us?

A
  • measure of dispersion
  • average difference between each score and the mean
  • SD is in the same units as the mean
123
Q

How science works

Objectivity

A

Uninfluenced by personal opinions or past experiences, free of bias.

124
Q

How science works

Replicability

A

It should be possible to obtain the same result if the study was to be repeated. Measure of validity.

125
Q

How science works

Control

A

The extent to which a variable is held constant or regulated.

126
Q

How science works

Cause and effect

A

The aim of the research is to demonstrate a relationship between the IV which has been deliberately manipulated and observing tis effect on the DV.

127
Q

How science works

Standardisation

A

All procedures are the same for every participant.

128
Q

How science works

Induction

A

Reasoning form the particular to the general.

Observe something then generate a theory.

129
Q

How science works

Deduction

A

Reasoning from the general to the particular.

Generate a theory and set out to test it.

130
Q

How science works

Falsification

A

The attempt to prove something is wrong.

131
Q

How science works

Quantifiable measures

A

Recording in numbers for ease of analysis.

132
Q

Experimental realism

A

The extent to which the procedure is convincing.

A LEVEL (15 decks)

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