Child Psychology Priority Flashcards
90%-100%
Pre-adult brain development
Early Brain development 1st trimester 2nd trimester 3rd trimester 1 year old 2 years old 3 years old
1st trimester-neural tube develops and brain develops into 2 sections.
2nd trimester-nerve cells develop.
3rd trimester-cereal cortex develops and all areas assume primary function.
1 year old-recognition developed-familiar faces vs strangers. 60% of adult brain.
2 years old-language areas in brain develop- vocabulary X4
3 years old-social environment starts to shape. Synaptic connections denser and faster than adults. 80% of adult brain.
Pre-adult brain development
Adolescent Brian development (10/11 to 25 years) Synaptic pruning Grey matter Limbic System Prefrontal Cortex MATURITIES
Synaptic pruning=unused connections are eliminated
Grey matter=peak volume
Limbic System: includes ventral striatum=reward and gratification
Prefrontal Cortex: inhibition centre=decision making
MATURITIES-ventral striatum matures earlier in adolescence and is often more dominant than the prefrontal cortex which does not mature until the mid 20s.
Pre-adult brain development
Expected value
Expected value= the sum of all possible outcomes of a choice. Used to judge whether the risks involved in a certain course of action are worth taking in order to gain reward.
Pre-adult brain development
Barkley-Levenson+Galvan (2014)
Sample details
- self-selected sample
- 19 adults 22 adolescents
- posters and online
- deemed healthy be self-report
- no psychological medication
- all right handed (contralateral control)
- all gave informed consent
Pre-adult brain development
Barkley-Levenson+Galvan (2014)
Method/Design
-Lab bass quasi experiment
IV: adult vs adolescent
DV: no. of gambles in Spinner game accepted. Activity in VS.
Matched pairs
Pre-adult brain development
Barkley-Levenson+Galvan (2014)
Procedure: brain scanning
(familiarised with mock scanner activity)
fMRI scans conducted by the 3-Tesla Trio MRI machine during game.
140 functional images. 2 structural images.
Pre-adult brain development
Barkley-Levenson+Galvan (2014)
Procedure: the gambling task
Intake session
Spinner game
Intake session- explained task. Provided info on source of income and spending money per month (valuation of momentary reward). $20 given for completing an to be used as ‘playing’ money. Told they could gain $20 or lose $20=sense of ownership.
For each trial- asked to gamble real money and this would be applied to the payment at the end of the $20 given.
Shown a spinner of 50% probability. Amounts ranged from +/- $5 to +/- $20. 192trials: 144 counterbalanced, 24 gain only, 24 loss only = broader range of EVs.
Pre-adult brain development
Barkley-Levenson+Galvan (2014)
Results: neuro-imaging
- more activity of VS of adolescents as the EV increased, than adults
- hyperactivation of VS only accused in adolescents even though both showed activation.
Pre-adult brain development
Barkley-Levenson+Galvan (2014)
Results: behavioural
- both showed gambling behaviour
- Positive correlation:increased EV increased likelihood of an accepted response- more likely adolescents than adults
- Acceptance: postitive EV> zero EV >negative EV
Pre-adult brain development
Barkley-Levenson+Galvan (2014)
Conclusions
- Hyperactivation in VS of adolescents tells us the response is due to brain placing greater value on potential rewards.
- Gambling behaviour increased as VS is more dominant than the prefrontal cortex in adolescents
Pre-adult brain development
Application- strategies to reduce risk taking behaviours using knowledge of brain development
Steinberg
GDL in the USA
Steinberg-belived much of adolescent risk taking behaviour occur in groups. The reaction, anticipate driving rush, competitiveness, social acceptance.
GDL in the USA-6 moth probationary period after passing. No more than once passenger(accept family or 21+ year old drivers) and can’t drive between 12am and 6am.
Perceptual development
Perception
Perception-process by which to minds organise, process and make sense of sensory data in order to interact with our environment.
Perceptual development
Depth perception
Elevation
Relative size
Motion parallax
Depth perception=visual ability to perceive the world in 3D.
Elevation=how the horizon is seen as vertically higher than the foreground.
Relative size= allows you to determine how close objects are to a known (size) object.
Motion parallax=things closer to us seem to be moving faster than things further away.
Perceptual development
Studying perception in animals -selective rearing-Blakemore and Cooper- evaluations
+doesn’t require extent
+more ethical than using humans
+animals develop quicker=saves time
+easier to control
- cannot cgenralise to humans
- can’t consent
- dont know if distressed
- long term implications unknown
- social sensitivity
- anthropomorphism= base assumptions from human assumptions
Perceptual development
Gibson and Walk (1960)-The Visual Cliff
Aim
- if ability to perceive and avid a drop is innate.
- at what age does depth perception develop in infants
- which textual cue is more important: texture or motion parallax
Perceptual development
Gibson and Walk (1960)-The Visual Cliff
Human sample
- 36 babies 6-14 months old
- could all crawl
- when visual development developed
- learn depth perception
Perceptual development
Gibson and Walk (1960)-The Visual Cliff
Animal sample
I day old: chicks, lambs, baby goat.
Week old: dogs, rate, pigs, turtles, kitten reared in darkness.
Perceptual development
Gibson and Walk (1960)-The Visual Cliff
Method/Design
Quasi controlled observation
Repeated measures
IV: what side called to
DV: compliance/ side preference
Perceptual development
Gibson and Walk (1960)-The Visual Cliff
Visual apparatus
Texture density- square size smaller on deep side (had under lighting to look deeper) as further away. [control=steep side squares enlarged/ grey]
Motion parallax- shallow squares move more quickly across visual field than the deep.
[control=larger squares on shallow]
Perceptual development
Gibson and Walk (1960)-The Visual Cliff
Results:humans quantitative and qualitative
Quantitative: 27 moved to shallow. 3 went to the deep side.
Qualitative: went to the edge then backed away. Some cried when they couldn’t get across to their mum on the deep side.
Perceptual development
Gibson and Walk (1960)-The Visual Cliff
Results: animals
Chicks: all to shallow none to deep
Goats and lambs: all on shallow, none to deep-went limp when put on deep (instinct to fear)
Rats: cross to deep as could feel with whiskers but when the cliff was raised 95% they would not cross to the deep as could not feel.
Kittens: avoid deep side. Reared in dark=no preference but this changed.
Turtles: little preference for either side= depth doesn’t matter in water.
Perceptual development
Gibson and Walk (1960)-The Visual Cliff
Conclusions
Humans can discriminate (natural habitats sense danger) as soon as they can crawl.
This is required or survival by all species once they have developed motor skills.
Perceptual development
Play strategies to develop perception in young children-4 different suggestions.
Soft play-visual, tactile and auditory perception.
Hand claps-visual, tactile and auditory perception.
Mobiles-visual, tactile and auditory perception.
Soft books with colours, noises and different fabrics-visual, tactile and auditory perception.
Development of attachment
Attachment
An affectional tie that one person/ animal from between themselves and another.
Development of attachment
Behaviourists
-learn attachment through association or reinforcement
-Classical conditioning
Food, attention, comfort=love
Babies associate caregivers to always being there.
Cupboard love=conditional-if needs are provided, the child loves the caregiver
Development of attachment
Evolutionary-Lorenz’s geese
Imprinting-attach with that ‘thing’ as long as it provides something meaningful.
Critical period: 36 hours after birth
[adoptive or surrogate parents still attach but attachment hindered if in intensive care]
Development of attachment
Harlow’s monkeys
Rhesus monkeys separated from biological mothers and left in cage with just a cloth. See if the monkey would go to the wire monkey with food or the cloth monkey as mother. When scared too.
1-went to wire with food then cloth (nature)
2-scared-went straight to cloth=comfort (nurture)
3-cloth monkey most of the day
4-raised with nothing- rocking, nothing, banging head
Development of attachment
Bowlby-‘Maternal deprivation hypothesis’
-attachments form model for later relationships
Critical period: first 2 years of life
If not= rescued intelligence, dwarfism, increased aggression and affection less psychopathy(lack awareness or empathy for others)
Evidence: 17/44 offenders had not developed secure attachment with their primary care giver.
Development of attachment
Type of attachment: Secure
-reacts quickly and positively to child’s needs
-responsive
=distressed when leaves
=happy on return
=seeks comfort when scared or sad
Development of attachment
Type of attachment: Insecure anxious/avoidant
-unresponsive/ uncaring
-dismissive
=no distress when leaves
=no acknowledgement of return
=does not seek/ make contact
Development of attachment
Type of attachment: Insecure resistant/ambivalent
-responds to child inconsistently
=distress when leaves
=not comforted by return
Development of attachment
Type of attachment: Insecure disorganised
-abusive/ neglectful
-responds in a frightening way
=no attaching behaviours
=dazed, confused or apprehensive in presence
Development of attachment
Ainsworth and Bell (1970)
Aim and basis
-highlight evolutionary concept of attachment
Mother=secure base for exploration
Attachment when alarm is caused by a stranger’s presence.
Development of attachment
Ainsworth and Bell (1970)
Sample
56 babies 12-18 months White middle class families contacted through paediatricians.
Development of attachment
Ainsworth and Bell (1970)
Method
Controlled observation through a one way mirror inso a small room with floor space and lots of toys.
2 observers recording a running commentary.
Click every 15 seconds. 1 score max (12 for 3 minutes)
Development of attachment
Ainsworth and Bell (1970)
The ‘Strange Situation’ episodes (each 3 minutes)
1-M enters with B observer. Observer leaves.
2-M puts B on floor and watches only joining if B seeks attention.
3-S enters ad sits quietly for 1 minute. Talks to M for 1 minute. Approaches B with toy for 1 minute. M leaves.
4-B playing= S does not participate. B is inactive= S interests. B distressed= S comforts. B not comforted=episode ends.
5-M enters pauses in doorway until B responds. S leaves. When B is settled playing, M leaved again ‘bye bye’.
6-B left alone for 3 minutes unless too distressed.
7-S enters and behaves as in 4. If too distressed, episode ends.
8-M returns, S leaves. Reunion observed. Procedure ends.
Development of attachment Ainsworth and Bell (1970) Results Crying Search behaviour Proximity seeking Contact maintaining Contact resisting
70% secure 15% avoidant 15% resistant
Crying: started at 4, reduced at 5, increased at 6, did not decrease in 7 (mother’s absence most distressing not just being alone)
Search behaviour: 4+7 moderate. 6 strong.
Proximity seeking: increased after each separation.
Contact maintaining: increased with every return.
Contact resisting: those with high CM also had high CR- ambivalence.
Development of attachment
Ainsworth and Bell (1970)
Conclusions
Attachment= predisposed.
Caregiver sensitivity hypothesis- attachment style dependent on behaviour shown towards them by mother.
Attachement and mother’s presence= exploration.
Development of attachment
Application - Ronald McDonald House Charity
- ‘home from home’
- reduce separation anxiety
- in case of an emergency
- child may not have secure attachment and so may not feel calmed by parents presence
- immediate reunion to maintain secure attachment which is also used as a method of calming
Impact of advertising on children
Bandura
Buijzen and Valkenburg (2000)
At what age does brand awareness start? The ability to recognise logos and brand?
-social learning theory
-many children asked for at least one advertised product of their Christmas list.
The younger=the more asked for.
-6months awareness starts and can recognise brands and logos by the age of 3.
Impact of advertising on children
Barbie and me colour change bag
Teksta T-rex
- girl in advert
- girlie colours
- woman accessory
- boys in advert
- darker colours
- construction skills
Impact of advertising on children
Johnson and Young (2002)
Aims
1-do advertisers use different language scripts for male and females in adverts aimed at children?
2- how is gender used as a code to link products to gender roles?
Impact of advertising on children
Johnson and Young (2002)
Sample
188 you adverts out of 478 commercials from 3 years during breaks on children TV show channels.
Impact of advertising on children Johnson and Young (2002) Content analysis 3 parts and 4 elements
- adverts targeted to boys
- adverts targeted to girls
- adverts targeted at both or neither gender
- voice over
- verb elements
- speaking lines
- use of the word power
Impact of advertising on children
Johnson and Young (2002)
Verb elements and examples
- Action (crawl)
- Competition/ destruction (crush)
- Control (rule)
- Limited activity (look)
- Nurturing (cuddle)
Impact of advertising on children Johnson and Young (2002) Results -voice over -verb elements -speaking lines -use of the word power
Gender categorised toy-Big time action Hero and GirlTalk
-voice over:Male 100% on boys and boy/girl ads (aggressive) Female 89% in girls (high pitched/ sing-song)
-verb elements:Boys= destruction, control limited activity. Girls=limited activity, nurturing.
[0 nurturing verbs for boys and 9 destructive for girls]
-speaking lines: Boys= 26% of adverts. Girls+ girls and boys= over 50% of adverts.
[girls prefer to talk but what is said is less important and is often after a comment]
-use of the word power: boys= 21% used ‘power’ or ‘powerful’. Girls=’power’ used once.
Impact of advertising on children
Johnson and Young (2002)
Conclusions
1-changing stereotypes that have worked is too risky and profits could be lost.
2-gender polarisation prepares for gender specific products that are common plant in the adult consumer market.
Impact of advertising on children
Applications-adversiers and the media
- consider how both genders are presented in adverts
- create adverts differing from stereotypes to challenge others unconsciously
- mixed verbs or remove certain (=remove stereotypes)
- social learning theory
Impact of advertising on children
Applications-parents
- discuss with child about adverts
- buy a range of toys and let them choose(as well as gender neutral ones)
- Piaget-assist with building knowledge of genders/ roles earlier than predicted
- Behaviourism-assocaition and classical conditioning
Impact of advertising on children
Applications-educators
- PE groups mixed and do the same in both primary and secondary school
- at younger years give out toys intended for opposite gender and let play
- boys play nurses and girls pay soldiers
- Social learning theory = shown opposite gender role and imitate it
