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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

The researcher has a behaviour checklist to tally so that they have structure to how they record their data.

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2
Q

What is a strength and a weakness of structured observations?

A

S= theres clear direction meaning observer is less likely to miss behaviours

W= behaviours may occur that aren’t on the checklist and won’t be recorded

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3
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

The researcher doesn’t have a pre determined checklist and there is no structure to how they record their data

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4
Q

What is a strength and weakness of an unstructured observation?

A

S= Allows the observer to record any behaviour they see

W= may lose sight of the actual experiment and have too many behaviours recorded

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5
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

An observation carried out in a natural environment where you’d expect to see that behaviour

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6
Q

What is a strength and weakness of a naturalistic observation?

A

S= Higher ecological validity

W= less control on the observation by the researcher

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7
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Usually conducted in a controlled setting where the researcher controls who they’ll observe

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8
Q

What is a strength and weakness of a controlled observation?

A

S= researcher has more control over the observation

W= Low ecological validity

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9
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

Where the observer is part of/pretending to be part of the observation

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10
Q

What is a strength and weakness of participant observation?

A

S= observers can gain first hand data

W= May show observer bias (means observer may get caught up in experiment and only interpret behaviour how they want to)

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11
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

The researcher does not participant in the behaviour that’s being observed

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12
Q

What’s a strength and weakness of non-participant observation?

A

S= Less chance of observer bias if observer isn’t involved in behaviour being observed

W= May miss certain behaviours

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13
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

Where the participant is aware that they’re being observed

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14
Q

What’s a strength and weakness of an overt observation?

A

S= It’s ethical

W= demand characteristics could occur

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15
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

When the participant doesn’t know they’re being observed

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16
Q

What is a strength and weakness of a covert observation?

A

S= less chance of demand characteristics

W= less ethical

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17
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

When there are categories of behaviour/checklist to observe during an observation

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18
Q

What is a strength and weakness of behavioural categories?

A

S= gives the researcher direction

W= May restrict the researcher and only focus on listed behaviours

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19
Q

What are coding frames?

A

When the behavioural categories are coded and can be rated for severity

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20
Q

What is a strength and a weakness of coding frames?

A

S= allowed the behaviour checklist to contain more detail

W= Observers may interpret the behaviour how they want and not be consistent with another observer

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21
Q

What is observer effects?

A

When the presence of an observer in an overt observation changes the behaviour of the participants

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22
Q

What is the weakness of observer effects?

A

The observer is not measuring what they intend to as participants change their behaviour

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23
Q

What is time sampling?

A

The observer records what the participant is doing in fixed time intervals

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24
Q

What is a strength and weakness of time sampling?

A

S= less likely to miss behaviours as observer doesn’t have to stay focused for the entire observation

W= May miss some behaviours if they occur when the observer isn’t recording behaviour

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25
Q

What is event sampling?

A

When the researcher records a behaviour every time it happens

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26
Q

What is a strength and a weakness of event sampling?

A

S= Observer is less likely to miss behaviours because they’re recording it every time it happens

W= May miss some behaviours if several happen at once and it’s difficult to keep track of

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27
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

When 2 or more observers observe the same behaviour at the same time with the same behavioural checklist. They then compare their data at the end

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28
Q

What is a strength and weakness of inter-rater reliability?

A

S= Can see if they recorded their data the same way

W= Time consuming as another observer is needed

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29
Q

What is observer bias?

A

When the observer interprets the behaviour/ data how they want to

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30
Q

What is the weakness of observer bias?

A

The observer is less likely to measure what they intend to

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31
Q

How would you plan an observation?

A
  1. Write aim
  2. Describe participants
  3. Will it be structured/unstructured?
  4. Is it participant/ Non participant?
  5. time or event sampling?
  6. draw tally chart your use with categories of behaviour
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32
Q

What does DCCOWPAD stand for?

A 
Deception
Consent
Confidentiality 
Observation
Withdrawal
Protection
Advice 
Debrief
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33
Q

What are the 4 ethical titles

A

Respect
Competence
Responsibility
Integrity

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34
Q

What comes under respect?

A

Consent
Withdrawal
Confidentiality

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35
Q

What comes under competence?

A

Advice

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36
Q

What comes under responsibility?

A

Protection

Debrief

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37
Q

What comes under integrity?

A

Deception

Observation

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38
Q

What is a sample?

A

Who is used in the study

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39
Q

What is sampling?

A

How you gain the participants for a study

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40
Q

What is a target population?

A

The total group of individuals from which a sample may be drawn e.g students

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41
Q

What is random sampling?

A

When the target population has an equal chance of being chosen

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42
Q

What is a strength and a weakness of random sampling?

A

S= Unbiased

W= Time consuming

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43
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

Asking participants to nominate another person who has the same characteristics being sampled

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44
Q

What is a strength and a weakness of snowball sampling?

A

S= can find people with rare characteristics / traits

W= Can be time consuming

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45
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Selecting people that are readily available at the time

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46
Q

What is a strength and weakness of opportunity sampling?

A

S= Quick and cheap

W= usually biased

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47
Q

What is Self-selecting sampling?

A

When participants select themselves to participate, usually through an advert

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48
Q

What is a strength and weakness of self-selecting sampling?

A

S= Willing to participate

W= Time consuming

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49
Q

What is ethnocentrism?

A

Research is ethnocentric if it only happens in one place e.g assuming results apply to all cultures

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50
Q

What is a strength and weakness of ethnocentric research?

A

S= Easier to conduct (no language barriers/cost )

W= could cause conflict/bias

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51
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

What the researcher changes in order to see an effect on something they’re measuring

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52
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

The variable the researcher is measuring

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53
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

A variable other than the IV which could affect the DV and therefore needs to be controlled

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54
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A variable other than the IV which has directly affected the DV by mistake

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55
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

An experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions

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56
Q

What would make something a lab experiment?

A 
Standardised procedure 
Instructions
Materials
Times
High control of the IV
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57
Q

What are 2 strengths of a lab experiment?

A

High control of the IV

Most scientific method

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58
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of a lab experiment?

A

Lacks ecological validity

Demand characteristics

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59
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment in a real world situation / setting

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60
Q

What are 2 strengths of a field experiment?

A

Better ecological validity

Reduction in demand characteristics

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61
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of a field experiment?

A

Lack of control

Difficult to replicate

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62
Q

What is a Quasi experiment?

A 
When the independent variable is not manipulated by the researcher but occurs naturally e.g 
Age
Split-brain 
Occupation 
Gender
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63
Q

What are 2 strengths of a quasi experiment?

A

Fewer demand characteristics

Avoids experimenter bias

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64
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of a quasi experiment?

A

Lack of control

More difficult to replicate

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65
Q

What is independent measures?

A

When participants only take part in one condition of an experiment

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66
Q

What are 2 strengths of independent measures?

A

Less chance of demand characteristics

Less order effects

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67
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of independent measures?

A

Individual differences

More time consuming

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68
Q

What is repeated measures?

A

When participants take part in both conditions of the experiment

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69
Q

What are 2 strengths of repeated measures?

A

Easier to find participants (only using one group)

Comparing results to themselves which should make it a fairer test and REDUCES INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

70
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of repeated measures?

A 
Order effects (same test twice e.g had practice)
Screw you effect
71
Q

What is matched pairs?

A

Participants are matched in each condition for characteristics that may have an effect on their performance

72
Q

What are 2 strengths of matched pairs?

A

Can compare results as they’re similar people

No demand characteristics

73
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of matched pairs?

A

Very time consuming

Expensive

74
Q

What do experiments look for and what do correlations look for?

A 
Experiments = difference 
Correlation= relationship
75
Q

What does an alternative hypothesis say?

A

There WILL be a significant ….

76
Q

What does a null hypothesis say?

A

There WON’T be a significant ….

77
Q

What is a one tailed / directional hypotheses?

A

States the direction of experiment / correlation

78
Q

What is a two tailed/ directional hypotheses?

A

Don’t state the direction of the experiment / correlation

79
Q

How would you plan an experiment?

A
  1. Aim
  2. Hypotheses
  3. Variables
  4. Describe P’s
  5. Sampling method
  6. Design
  7. materials needed
  8. write standardised instructions for P’s
  9. ethical issues
  10. table for data
80
Q

What are self reports?

A

Questionnaires

Interviews

81
Q

What is a strength and weakness of a questionnaire?

A

S= Can sample a very large target population

W= Often influences by bias as p’s may not answer truthfully

82
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

Each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order

83
Q

What is a strength and a weakness of a structured interview?

A

S= gets answers to questions you need

W= no flexibility to ask new questions

84
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

Q’s can be changed or adapted to meet the respondents intelligence, understanding or belief

85
Q

What is a strength and weakness of an unstructured interview?

A

S= flexibility meaning more detailed answers

W= Prone to interviewer bias

86
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

It’s flexible and allows new questions to be added during the interview

87
Q

What’s a strength and weakness of a semi structured interview?

A

S= Flexibility

W= Prone to interviewer bias

88
Q

What is an open question?

A

Allows participants to elaborate on answers and give more detail

89
Q

What’s a strength and a weakness of open questions?

A

S= Provides detail

W= Qualitative data so hard to analyse

90
Q

What is a closed question?

A

Types of questions that force participants to choose an option

91
Q

What’s a strength and weakness of a closed question?

A

S= Quantitative data so can be easily analysed

W= answers lack detail

92
Q

What is a rating scale?

A

respondents give a number to represent their views and feelings

93
Q

What is a strength and weakness of a rating scale?

A

S= Quantitative data so easily analysed

W= Lacks detail

94
Q

What is a semantic differential rating scale?

A

used to put something on a scale between two opposing words

95
Q

What’s a strength and a weakness of semantic differential rating scales?

A

S= quantitative data so easily analysed

W= Lacks detail

96
Q

What’s a likert scale?

A

P’s asked to rate their feelings on a particular topic using a scale

97
Q

What’s a strength and weakness of a likert scale?

A

S= quantitative data so can be easily analysed

W= Lacks detail/ response bias

98
Q

What is response bias?

A

Answers may not represent true feelings

99
Q

Why is response bias a bad thing?

A

people may just choose middle number to avoid an extreme score meaning answers lack validity

100
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

P’s often answer in a way to portray themselves in a good light

101
Q

Why is social desirability bias a bad thing?

A

P’s may not answer truthfully meaning answers could lack validity

102
Q

How would you plan a self report?

A
  1. Aim
  2. Describe participants
  3. Sampling method
  4. Open and closed questions
  5. 2 rating scale questions
    what
103
Q

What’s a positive correlation?

A

Co-variables move in the same direction

104
Q

What’s a negative correlation?

A

Co-variables move in opposite directions

105
Q

What does no correlation mean?

A

No relationship between co-variables

106
Q

What are 2 strengths of correlations?

A

Can be used when experiments are unethical

Can see the strength of a relationship between co-variables

107
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of correlations?

A

Can’t establish cause and effect

May be extraneous variables

108
Q

What’s a correlation coefficient?

A

It’s shows the strength and direction of the correlation and is between -1 and 1

109
Q

What coeffecient would -0.7 be?

A

Moderate negative correlation

110
Q

What coeffecient would 0.054 be?

A

No correlation

111
Q

What coeffecient would 0.2 be?

A

Weak positive correlation

112
Q

How would you plan a correlation?

A
  1. Aim
  2. Hypotheses
  3. Describe P’s
  4. 2 co-variables
  5. Table
  6. scattergraph
113
Q

What are 2 strengths of quantitative data?

A

Easy to analyse

Can look for cause and effect

114
Q

What is a weakness of quantitative data?

A

Doesn’t give context

115
Q

What are 2 strengths of qualitative data?

A

Depth and detail

More holistic

116
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of qualitative data?

A

Hard to analyse

Difficult to make comparisons

117
Q

What is primary data?

A

When the researcher collects the data themselves e.g experiments and observations

118
Q

What is a strength and weakness of primary data?

A

S= Data will fit the needs of the experiment as they’re collecting for the purpose of the study

W= Time consuming

119
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Researcher may make use of data collected by someone else e.g crime statistics

120
Q

What is a strength and weakness of secondary data?

A

S= Saves time and money

W= Data may not always be appropriate for purpose of the study

121
Q

What are the 3 levels of data?

A

Interval
Nominal
Ordinal

122
Q

What is interval data and give an example?

A

Data that uses a standardised scale or units of measurement e.g temperature / score on a test

123
Q

Evaluate interval data

A

Most powerful of the three and the most informative

124
Q

What is ordinal data and give an example?

A

Any data that is put into order/rate/rank e.g ordering people in height

125
Q

Evaluate ordinal data

A

bit more powerful than nominal as you find a bit more out like the order

126
Q

What is nominal data and give an example?

A

Categories of behaviour e.g organising people into groups

127
Q

Evaluate nominal data

A

most basic, you only find out frequency

128
Q

What is the general definition of validity?

A

Whether a study measures what it claims to be measuring

129
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Looks at how behaviour was defined and measured within the study

130
Q

What are the 4 types of internal validity?

A

Face
Construct
Concurrent
Criterion

131
Q

What is face validity?

A

Does it appear to measure what it should be? does it look valid? e.g IQ test measuring someone’s intelligence

132
Q

What is construct validity?

A

How well a test or tool measure the construct that it was designed to measure

133
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

When a test correlates well with a measure that has been previously validated

134
Q

What is criterion validity?

A

The extent to which a measure can predict future behaviour or attitude

135
Q

What is external validity?

A

Looks at factors outside of the study

136
Q

What are the 2 types of external validity?

A

Population

Ecological

137
Q

What’s population validity?

A

Whether the sample is representative of the wider target population of the study

138
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Does the study reflect real life situations

139
Q

What are the threats to validity?

A

Demand characteristics
Social Desirability Bias
Response Bias
Researcher Bias

140
Q

What’s the general definition of reliability?

A

Whether or not something is consistent

141
Q

What’s internal reliability?

A

How consistent a study is within itself

142
Q

What are the 2 types of internal reliability?

A

Inter-rater

Split-half method

143
Q

What is inter rater reliability?

A

For observation only.

2+ observers observe the same behaviour at the same time using the same behaviour checklist and compare data at the end

144
Q

What is the Split-Half Method?

A

A test/questionnaire/interview are split in two and the scores for each half is compared with the other

145
Q

What is external reliability?

A

The extent to which a measure varies from one use to another

146
Q

What is the one type of external reliability?

A

Test re-test

147
Q

What is test re-test

A

measures whether a psychological measure is consistent from one testing occasion to the next

148
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

They describe a set of data and the two types are measure of central tendency and measures of dispersion

149
Q

What are the 3 types of measures of central tendency?

A

Mean
Median
Mode

150
Q

What is one advantage and disadvantage of the mean?

A

A= most accurate

D= influenced by extreme values

151
Q

What’s one advantage and disadvantage of the median?

A

A= not influenced by extreme values

D= could end up being a decimal

152
Q

What’s one advantage and disadvantage of the mode?

A

A= easy to calculate

D= could have multiple modes

153
Q

When would you use a bar chart?

A

When you have data that isn’t continuous and you have categories

154
Q

When would you use a histogram?

A

When the data isn’t continuous e.g age, height

155
Q

When would you use a scattergraph

A

Relationship in correlation

156
Q

When would you use a pie chart?

A

When the data isn’t continuous.

You divide each frequency by the total frequencies and multiply by 360

157
Q

When would you use a line graph?

A

To show how something changes over time, can be useful to compare 2 or more conditions

158
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

Tells us how spread out the data is from the mean and gives us more information than just the average

159
Q

What’s the typical structure of a research report?

A 
Abstract 
Introduction 
Method
Results 
Discussion 
Reference 
Appendices
160
Q

What is a Type 1 error?

A

FALSE POSITIVE

when you accept the alternate hypothesis when you should’ve accepted the null

161
Q

What’s a type 2 error?

A

FALSE NEGATIVE

happens when you accept the null when you should’ve accepted the alternate

162
Q

What statistical test would you use for independent measures and nominal data

A

Chi-square

163
Q

What statistical test would you use for repeated measures and nominal data?

A

Binomial Sign

164
Q

What statistical test would you use for independent measures and ordinal data?

A

Mann-Whitney U

165
Q

What statistical test would you use for repeated measures and ordinal data?

A

Wilcoxon Signed Rank

166
Q

What test would you use for a correlation and nominal data?

A

No test as can’t plot nominal data in a correlation

167
Q

What test would you use for a correlation and ordinal data?

A

Spearman’s Rho Correlation Coefficient

168
Q

What test would you use for any interval data?

A

Parametric test

169
Q

Why would you use a parametric test?

A

Interval data
No extreme scores
Normal distribution

170
Q

Why would you use non-parametric tests?

A

Nominal/Ordinal data
Extreme scores
Skewed distribution

171
Q

What is a control?

A

Something that is kept the same throughout the experiment

172
Q

What are 2 strengths of control variables?

A

Shows cause and effect

Reduces confounding variables which means validly is improved

Psychology First Year (12 decks)

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