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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the aims of a study

A

General statements of what the researcher intends to investigate

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2
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

A statement of what the researcher believes to be true. Clearly states the relationship between variables as stated by theory

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3
Q

What is a theory

A

A collection of general principles used to explain specific observations and facts

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4
Q

What is a directional hypothesis

A

States whether changes are greater or lesser positive or negative etc

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5
Q

What is a non directional hypothesis

A

Doesn’t state the direction of a study

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6
Q

What is the IV

A

The variable manipulated by the investigator

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7
Q

What is the Dv

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher

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8
Q

Why are all other variables beside the IV have to remain constant in a properly run experiment

A

So the researcher can be confident that the cause of the effect on the DV was the IV alone

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9
Q

What are two levels of the IV

A

Control condition

Experimental condition

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10
Q

What is operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they cns be measured

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11
Q

What is an extraneous variable

A

Is any variable other than the IV that may have an effect on the DV. These are often nuisances that do not vary systematically with the IV but may dampen any effect such as the lighting in the lab

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12
Q

Example of extraneous variables

A

Participant variables such as intelligence

Situational variables such as distractions

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13
Q

What is a confounding variable

A

Any variable other than the IV that has affected the DV. They do change systematically with the IV so it is hard to tell if any observations come from the IV or the CV.

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14
Q

What are demand characteristics

A

Refers to any cue from the researcher or research situation that may reveal the aim of the study

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15
Q

What are the two demand characteristics

A

‘Please-U effect’

‘Screw-U effect’

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16
Q

What are investigator effects

A

Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome

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17
Q

What are two sources of bias

A

Demand characteristics

Investigator effect

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18
Q

What are two ways of controlling bias

A

Randomisation

Standardisation

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19
Q

What is randomisation

A

Refers to the use of chance when designing investigations to control the effect of bias

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20
Q

What is standardisation

A

Using the exact same formalised procedures for all participants in a research study

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21
Q

What are the three types of experimental design

A

Independent group design
Repeated measures design
Matched pairs design

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22
Q

What is an independent group design

A

One group of people do condition A another group do condition B.
Random allocation is used to assign participants to groups like drawing names out of a hat

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23
Q

What is a control group

A

A group of participants in an independent group design who receive no treatment. They act as a comparison

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24
Q

Strength of independent groups design

A

In repeated measures, order effects can occur because the same person is tested again and may do better the second time around because they know what to expect or worse because they are tired. This acts as a CV and independent groups design avoids it

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25
Q

What are order effects

A

In repeated measures design a CV arising from the order in which conditions are presented e.g a practice effect or boredom effect

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26
Q

Limitation of independent groups design

A

More participants needed than repeated measures design. They need twice as many. This means that time spent recruiting participants makes the study more expensive

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27
Q

Quick strength and weakness of independent group design

A

/ harder to guess the aim of the study

Participant variables may act as extraneous variables as everybody is different

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28
Q

What is a repeated measures design

A

Each participant does all conditions.

Order in which paritipacsnts are tested should be varied to reduce order effects.

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29
Q

How does repeated measures designs order effect get dealt with

A

Counterbalancing - half participants do condition 1 first the other do condition 2

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30
Q

Strength of repeated measures design

A

Controls participant variables. Each person acts as their own control because the person in both conditions has the same characteristics. This controls an important EV (participant variables£

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31
Q

Weakness of repeated measures design

A

Participants may do better or worse because they are doing a similar task twice. Order effects. These act as an Ev and should be compensated through counterbalancing

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32
Q

Quick strength and limitation of repeated measures design

A

Fewer participants needed than for independent groups design.
Participants may guess the aim of the study.

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33
Q

What is matched pairs design

A

Two groups of participants which acts as a compromise between independent groups and related measures as two groups are used but they are related to other by being paired.
These pairs are put into separate groups.

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34
Q

Strength of matched pairs design

A

No problem with order effects. Used two seperste groups of participants and therefore there can be no order effects nor will participants guess the aim. Enhanced the validity

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35
Q

Weakness of matched pairs design

A

Matching pairs takes time. It is a lengthy process to test participants and match them up. This increases the time taken and the costs. Matching is also not perfect

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36
Q

Quick strength and weakness of matched pairs design

A

Participant variables are partly controlled.

More participants needed than for repeated measures design

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37
Q

What are the four types of experiments

A

Labatory
Field
Natural
Quasi

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38
Q

What are lab experiments

A

Special environment where behaviour can be investigated under controlled conditions. They control EVS making it easy to control the IV. Only by controlling EVS/CVS csn we claim they the change in the IV was due to the DV

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39
Q

Strength and weakness of Lab experiments

A

EVS can be controlled and the effect on the DVs diminished. Means the experimenter can be confident in drawing a causal conclusion (high internal validity).

Lab experiments are artificial and not like everyday life. Participants know they are being observed and may behave differently meaning behaviour cannot always be generalised beyond the research setting (low external validity)

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40
Q

What are field experiments

A

Conducted in the environment where behaviour would normally occur but means there is less control compared a lab setting. IVs still controlled but less control over Ev as a result of a natural setting

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41
Q

Strength and weakness of field experiments

A

Participants are not usually aware they are being studied. Means they are likely to behave normally. Means it can be generalised. (Good external validity)

Participants are not given the opportunity to provide informed consent because they would be aware of being studied and are not always debriefed. Possible invasion of privacy raising ethical issues

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42
Q

What is a natural experiment

A

Experimenter doesn’t manipulate the IV it is a natural one such as in the study of Romanisn orphans the children were adopted without the researcher getting involved.
DV may be assessed in natural environment or in a lab.

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43
Q

Strength and weakness of natural experiment

A

In some cases it is the only ethical way research can be done. For instance in the Romanian study it would be unfair to deliberately make children experience late adoption for an experiment.

Natural events occur very rarely. Reduced the opportunity for research limiting scope for generalising findings

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44
Q

What is a quasi experiment

A

The IV is not able to be manipulated because it is a pre-existing condition such as age or gender. Participants cannot be randomly allocated to experimental conditions.

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45
Q

Strength and weakness of quasi experiments

A

Comparisons can be made regarding behaviour. Often in quasi experiments the IV is a pre-existing difference between groups of people like autism. Means comparisons can be made between people and the different behaviours they demonstrate

Random allocation to conditions is not possible. This is due to the IV being pre-existing. Means resrcger is less sure whether the IV affected the DV because other participant variables may be responsible.

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46
Q

What are the different sampling methods

A 
Opportunity
Volunteers
Random 
Systematic
Stratified
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47
Q

What does sampling mean

A

Selecting participants

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48
Q

What is the target population

A

Refers to the large group of people from which the sample will be drawn

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49
Q

What is a representative sample

A

One that is typical of the target population and is not biased

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50
Q

What do biased samples limit

A

The extent to which generalisations can be made

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51
Q

Why are most samples inevitably bias

A

Certain groups, ages, genders are over/under represented

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52
Q

What is an opportunity sample

A

Made up of people who are simply most available like the ones who are nearest. You just ask them to take part

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53
Q

Strength and weakness of opportunity sample

A

Quickest method to use.
Inevitably biased - unrepresentative of target population so can’t be generalised. Research bias ( may avoid some people)

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54
Q

What is a volunteer sample

A

Ask for self selecting people to take part. Might be in a news paper ad or on a notice board asking for participants

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55
Q

Strength and weakness of volunteer sample

A

Guarantees willing participants so will be willing to put more thought into the study than someone on the street.
Likely to be biased ( volunteer bias) as volunteers are likely to have a certain ‘profile’ one who is keen and helpful limiting generalisation

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56
Q

What is random sampling

A

Equal chances of selection for every member of the target population which isn’t true for opportunity or volunteer sample. Could be chosen using the lottery method where all members of population are placed in a hat and approapraite number is drawn out. Or random number tables

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57
Q

Strength and weakness of random sampling

A

Potentially unbiased as there is no infleunce over who is chosen. In reality some decline and then the remaining sample had a kind of volunteer bias - only those willing are left.
Representative sample not guaranteed.

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58
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

System is used to make a pattern which means that every men ever if the target population has an equal chance of being selected. List of all members of population is used and everything 5th or 40th etc person is used

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59
Q

Strength and weakness of systematic sampling

A

Unbiased as it’s an objective system and can be regarded as random sample if first item is selected randomly.
Takes more time and effort than other methods as a complete list of the target population has to be made much like random sampling

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60
Q

What is a stratified sample

A

Most commonly used in large scale questionnaire research. Contains participants who are selected according to their frequency in the target population. Strata are identified such as gender and the relative percentages for these are obtained and should be reflected in the sample obtained. Not a matter of equal representation in all subgroups but equal to their frequency in the target population

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61
Q

Strength and weakness of stratified sampling

A

More representative of the target population than other methods. Means generalisation of findings can become possible.

It’s not perfect. Identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different within a target population so a completely representative sample is not possible

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62
Q

What are four ethical issues

A

Informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm
Privacy and confidentiality

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63
Q

When do ethical issues aris e

A

When’s conflict exists between participants rights and the researchers need to fins valuable and meaningful findings

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64
Q

What is the name of a code of ethical

A

BPS code of ethics

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65
Q

What is the BPS code of ethics

A

Quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants

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66
Q

What four principles does the BPS code of ethics include

A

Respect - appreciate the rights of others
Competence - be aware of own limits
Responsibility - avoiding harming clients or participants
Integrity - be honest and accurate

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67
Q

What does informed consent involve

A

Making participants aware of the aims, procedures, rights including right to withdraw and also what the data will be used for.

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68
Q

For participants under 16 what is required

A

Parental consent

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69
Q

Why does full informed consent present a dilemma

A

It may reveal the study’s aims and affect participant behaviour reducing validity

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70
Q

What are three alternatives addressing the problem of informed consent

A

Presumptive consent
Prior general consent
Retrospective consent

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71
Q

What is presumptive consent

A

Without getting consent from the participant themselves a sinister group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If group agrees the original participants is ‘presumed’

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72
Q

What is prior general consent

A

Participants give permission to take part in a number of different studies including one that will involve deception

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73
Q

What is retrospective consent

A

At end of study during debriefing participants are asked for consent having already taken part in the study

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74
Q

What is deception

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation

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75
Q

How can deception occur

A

By omission: participants may be given some information about what they will be required to do in the study but other information is withheld

False information: participants told something different to the true aim

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76
Q

From the researchers point of view what is deception

A

Harmless and necessary to conduct a valid study

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77
Q

What can deception be compensated by

A

Adequate debriefing

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78
Q

What four things does debriefing involve

A

True aim of the study
Any details not given during the study such as other experimental conditions
What data will be used for
Given the right to withhold their information if desired - important in retrospective consent

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79
Q

How do participants get protects from harm

A

The risk to participants should be no greater than in everyday life.

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80
Q

From the researchers point of view what is the level of potential harm

A

Difficult to predict, researchers may only become aware of how participants react when they are in research situations

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81
Q

How to deal with the issue of protection from harm

A

Debriefing - participant should be reassured their behaviour was typical if they feel embarrassed or anxious.
Counselling - if participants have been subject to stress or embarrassment researcher should provide it

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82
Q

When is it particularly important that ethical issues are dealt with

A

When the participants in the investigation are children. They are vulnerable and must receive special care and make sure their participation is brief as they get tired

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83
Q

What does privacy refer to

A

A persons right to control information about themselves

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84
Q

What is the distinction between privacy and confidentiality

A

We have the right to privacy, if this is invaded confidentiality/anonymity should be respected

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85
Q

From researchers point of view why is it difficult to know what counts as ‘public’

A

Some people do not wish to be observed even in public

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86
Q

Ways of dealing with issues in privacy

A

Use presumptive consent as others regard it as acceptable

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87
Q

Ways of dealing confidentiality issues

A

Use numbers instead of names or false names and don’t share the personal data with other researchers

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88
Q

What is the responsibility of ethical committees

A

To weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals to decide whether the study should go ahead - cost- benefit analysis

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89
Q

What is the cost benefit analysis

A

Making a decision by weighing up costs like harm to the participant against gains like value of the respect

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90
Q

What is a pilot study

A

Small scale trial run of a research designed before doing the real thing

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91
Q

Why are pilot studies conducted

A

In order to find out if certain things don’t work, so you can correct them before spending time and money on the real thing

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92
Q

What is a pilot study trying to do

A

Helps the researcher Test the procedures and refine them if necessary - it’s not about getting the right results

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93
Q

What is a single blind study

A

The participant is prevented from knowing the aims so deception is involved. This is done to prevent the participants expectations affecting the participants performance

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94
Q

What is a double blind study

A

The participant and the researcher are blind to the aims of the study. A study is conducted by someone other than the main researcher to prevent investigator effects affecting someone’s performance

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95
Q

What is a control group

A

Used in experimental studies for he purpose of setting a comparison or a base line

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96
Q

What do control groups help to establish

A

Cause and effect as if the behaviour of the experimental group is different to the control group the researcher can conclude it is the effort of the IV

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97
Q

What are the three types of observation

A

Naturalist and controlled
Covert and overt
Participant and non participant

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98
Q

What do observations provide psychologists with

A

A way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them

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99
Q

Strength of observations

A

Can capture unexpected behaviour. What people say they do is quite different form what they actually do so observations don’t allow for dishonesty. They are useful as they give insight into behaviour

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100
Q

Limitation of observation

A

Risk of observer bias. When collecting data for observation it may be difficult to be objective because the researchers interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations. Involving more than one resrcher can reduce possibility of observer bias affecting validity of results.

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101
Q

naturalistic vs controlled observation

A

Naturalistic- Takes place in the setting where the target behaviour would normally occur.
In a controlled observation there is some control of the environment and EVs.

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102
Q

Strength and weakness of controlled observations

A

Easily replicated. Repeatable due to standardised procedure. Means findings can be checked to see if they occur again.

Lower validity. Behaviour produced may be contrived and artificial as a result of the setting. Can’t be applied to everyday experience.

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103
Q

Strength and weakness of naturalistic observation

A

High external validity. Behaviour is studied in the normal context so it is more natural. Means findings can be generalised to everyday life.

Low control of EV. Makes it more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour making it More difficult to draw conclusions

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104
Q

Covert vs overt observations

A

In covert observations the participants are unaware they are being studied but in overt observations participants are aware they are being studied and they’ve given consent

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105
Q

Strength and weakness of covert observation

A

Demand characteristics are less of a factor than in overt observations. Increases the validity of the findings.

Ethics of covert observations. People may not want their behaviour noting down. Means ethics of these studies may be questioned

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106
Q

Strength and weakness of overt observations

A

Ethically more acceptable because participants have given consent to being studied. Aware their behaviour is being studied and they also have the right to withdraw their participation.

Demand characteristics are a problem. Means behaviour is less spontaneous and bust risk than it perhaps would have even, threatening the validity of the findings.

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107
Q

What are participant observations

A

The observer is part of the group they are studying for instance a study of workers and management might be improved by having the research actually join the workforce to produce a first hand account

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108
Q

What is a non participant observation

A

The researcher remains seperate from those they are studying such as trying to observer the behaviour of school children

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109
Q

Strength and weakness of participant observation

A

Lead to useful insights. Increases validity.

Possible loss of objectivity. Researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose obecticity. Line between being a researcher and participant becomes blurred.

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110
Q

Strength and weakness of non participant observations

A

They are more objective as the researcher keeps an objective distance from their participant so their is less chance of them ‘going native’. More validity

Loss of insight. They are far too removed form the people and behaviour they are studying reducing validity

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111
Q

What are questionnaires

A

Pre-set list of written questions to assess thoughts/ feelings. They can be used to assess the dependant variable

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112
Q

Strength of questionnaire

A

Can be distributed to a large number of people so can gather lardge amounts of data. Can also be completed without the resrcher being involved reducing the effort making it cost-effective

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113
Q

Limitation of questionnaire

A

Responses may not always be truthful. Respondents may be keen to present themselves in a positive light and this may influence their answers. Social desirability bias.

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114
Q

What is social desirability bias.

A

Tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents them in a better light

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115
Q

What are interviews

A

Face-to-face interactions. Two types of interview: structured interview made up of a predetermined question list and unstructured interview which is a free flowing interaction whrrr the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate their answers. Semi structured interview is a mix between the two where the interviewer can ask follow up questions when needed

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116
Q

Example of a semi structured interview

A

A job interview

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117
Q

Strength of structured interviews

A

Easy to replicate. Standardised format reduced the differences between interviewers

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118
Q

Limitation of structure interview

A

Can’t elaborate. It is not possible for intervieweees to deviate form topic or elaborate leading to frustration.

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119
Q

Strength of unstructured interview

A

Greater flexibility. Interviewer can follow up points as they arrive so the interviewer can gain insight into the view of the interviewed

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120
Q

Limitation of unstructured interview

A

Analysis of data is much more difficult. A lot harder to replicate so the former means that diffferences in style and types of questions between interviewers are likely introducing bias

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121
Q

What are the two types of self report

A

Questionnaire and interview

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122
Q

What are the theee types of observational design

A

Unstructured or structure observations
Behavioural categories
Observational sampling methods

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123
Q

What is an unstructured observation

A

Resrcher writes down everything they see producing accounts that are rich in detail.

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124
Q

When are unstructured observations appropriate

A

Small- scale observations and involving few participants such as a couple

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125
Q

What are structured observations

A

Predetermined list of behaviours to quantify observations they use behavioural categories

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126
Q

Strength and weakness of unstructured observations

A

Rich and detailed data is collected giving researcher more insight into behaviour than data collected in structured way.

Risk of observer bias. they may only record behaviours that catch their eye and these may not be the most important or useful. Gives unrepresentative view of participants behaviour as a whole

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127
Q

Strength and weakness of structured observation

A

Data recording and alaydis are easier. Behavioural categories makes the data more straight forwards and systematic. Quantitative data.

Key detail may be lost. Reducing observational records to numbers may loose key information. Reduced validity of eventual findings

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128
Q

What are behavioural categories

A

Structures what is being observed. Behaviour is broken into operationalised behaviours. Important that the categories are as complete as possible and that no behaviours are left out

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129
Q

weaknesses of behavioural categories

A

May be difficult to make them clear and unambiguous. They must be measurable, self evident and not overlap. For instance the difference between smiling and grinning is difficult to discern

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130
Q

Another limation of behavioural categories

A

Danger of a ‘dustbin’ category is which many different behaviours are deposited because many behaviours go unrecorded

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131
Q

What are the two observational sampling methods

A

Time sampling

Event sampling

132
Q

What is time sampling

A

Observations st regular intervals for example once every 15 seconds the behaviour of an individual is noted

133
Q

What is event sampling

A

Where one participant event is focused on and the researcher ticks every time the target behaviour occurs

134
Q

Strength and limitation of time sampling

A

Reduced the number of observations that have to be made. Because observations are made at intervals. Makes data collection more structured for resrcher.

Unrepresentative. What is not recorded during time sampling may be more crucial than what is and the resrcher may miss important interactions.

135
Q

Strength and weakness of event sampling

A

May record infrequent behaviour. If it occurs infrequently then an observer will still pick it up and they are looking for the behaviour. Event sampling enables recording of behaviours that could be missed if time sampling was used.

Complex behaviour may be oversimplified. If event the focus is on is too complex the important details may be overlooked and go unrecorded. May affect the validity of the findings

136
Q

What are the two types of questions

A

Closed questions

Open questions

137
Q

What do closed questions produce

A

Quantitative data. They have a specific range of answers or have a finite set of responses

138
Q

What do open questions produce

A

Qualitative data. Allows respondents to provide their own answers to questions expressed in words

139
Q

Strength and weakness of closed questions

A

Answers are easier to analyse. Quantitative data is easier to analyse than qualitative and can be used to produce graphs and charts so comparisons can occur.

Respondents are restricted in their answers. Can’t express precise feelings and may force answers that aren’t representative. May be frustrating.

140
Q

Strength and weakness of open questions

A

Respondents aren’t redirected. They can elaborate and express themselves without being restricted by categories. Greater validity.

Answers more difficult to analyse. Qualitative data has more variety in answers so more difficult to analyse. May be researcher is forced to reduce data to statistics in some way in order for meaningful conclusions to be made.

141
Q

How to write a good question

A

Avoid jargon to avoid misunderstandings.

Avoid double barrelled questions - contains two questions in one

Avoid leading questions and use neutral alternatives to emotive words.

142
Q

What are four ways to ensure the interview is good

A

Standardised interviews schedule

Quiet room

Establish rapport

Emphasises confidential nature of the interview

143
Q

What is an interview schedule

A

A list of questions the interviewer needs to cover

144
Q

Why should interviews be conducted in a quiet room

A

Increase the liklihood that the interviewer will open up

145
Q

How do interview establish rapport

A

Beginning interviews with neutral questions to make the participant feel relaxed and comfortable

146
Q

When is emphasising the confidential nature of the interview important

A

If the interview includes topics that may be personal or sensitive

147
Q

What do correlations illustrate

A

The strength and direction of an association between two or more co-variables

148
Q

What are correlations plotted on

A

A scattergram with one on the x-axis and the other the y-axis.

149
Q

What are he three types of correlations

A

Positive
Negative
Zero

150
Q

What is a positive correlation

A

Both sets of data increase at the same time

151
Q

What is a negative correlation

A

One co-variable increases as the the decrease

152
Q

What is a zero correlation

A

If there is no relationship between co-variables

153
Q

What is the difference between an experiment and a correlation

A

In experiment: resrcher controls or manipulated the IV in order to measure the effect in the DV.
In correlation: there is no manipulation of one variable and therefore it is not possible to establish cause and effect between variables.

154
Q

Strength of correlation

A

Relatively economical to carry out. There is no need for a controlled environment and no manipulation of variables is required. Data collected by others can be used meaning correlations are less time consuming than experiments

155
Q

Limitation of correlations

A

Causal relationships are not demonstrated. Easy to assume that is a correlation demonstrates that one co-variable has in some way caused the change in the other variable - the media often do this. Means great care should be taken to emphasis that there may be intervening variables that explain the relationships.

156
Q

What are the three types of data analysis

A

Kinds of data
Descriptive statistics
Graphs

157
Q

What is quantitative data

A

Numerical that can be analysed statistically

158
Q

What is qualitative data

A

Non-numerical

159
Q

Strength and weakness of quantitative data

A

Easier to analyse as its numerical, you can draw graphs and calculate averages. You can see patterns easily.

Oversimplifies human behaviours. Expressing thoughts and feelings in numbers means that the individual meaning is lost.

160
Q

Strength and weakness of qualitative data

A

Represents the complexities of behaviour.using qualitative data you can explain each of these feelings in a more detailed way rather than just sayings it’s high or low. You can also include information that is unexpected.

Less easy to analyse. Large amount of detail gained is difficult to summarise. And as soon as you do it starts losing detail. Makes it difficult to draw conclusions.

161
Q

What is primary data

A

‘First-hand’ data for example from w questionnaire, observation etc.

162
Q

What is secondary data

A

Already exists before the investigation and has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research for example in journal articles and books

163
Q

Strength and limitation of primary data

A

Fits the job as it is gathered from the participants themsleves. Allows researcher to design the investigation so they can extract the data they need.

Requires and effort on the part of the researcher. Conducting an experiment involved time, planning and preparation. Secondary data can be accessed in minutes

164
Q

Strength and weakness of secondary data

A

Inexpensive. Requires minimal effort making it inexpensive. When designing a study the desired information may already exist.

Quality and accuracy of secondary may be poor. Variraiton in the quality and accuracy of secondary data as much can be inaccurate or incomplete. May lack external validity

165
Q

What is meta-analysis

A

A particular form of secondary data that involved combining data from a large number of studies. Studies should have same research questions and methods so general conclusions can be made. Can be qualitative and quantitative data - simply discuss the conclusions of studies or perform a statistical analysis of the data may involve calculating the effect size

166
Q

What is the effect size

A

A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables

167
Q

Strength of meta-analysis

A

Enabled generalisations to be made. Reviewing results of many studies means the sample size is made up of a much larger set of participants. Increases the extent to which generalisations can be made strengthening the validity

168
Q

Weakness of meta-analysis

A

Studies may not be equivalent. Research designs in the different studies may vary considerably which means studies are not always comparable. Putting them all together to calculate the effect size may be inappropriate and so conclusions may not be valid

169
Q

What is publication bias

A

The tendency for academic journals to publish only positive findings or findings that agree with existing theory

170
Q

What is the file drawer problem

A

Bias created because the results of some studies are not published (filed away) for example studies with negative results

171
Q

What are two descriptive statistics

A

Measures of central tendency

Measures of dispersion

172
Q

What are the three measures of central tendency

A

Mean
Median
Mode

173
Q

What are averages

A

Numbers that represent typical values of a set of data

174
Q

What does the phrase measures of central tendency mean

A

That these measures all represent a central or average figure

175
Q

What is the mean

A

Arithmetic average.

176
Q

How do you calculate the mean

A

Calculated by adding up all items in a set of days and dividing by the number of items

177
Q

What is the median

A

The middle

178
Q

How to calculate the median

A

Arranging all data in order from largest to smallest (or smallest to largest) and then selecting the middle value. If there are two values in the middle the mean of these is calculated

179
Q

What is the mode

A

The most common

180
Q

How to calculate the mode

A

The model group is the value that is most frequent. For use with nominal data.

181
Q

Strength and limitation of the mean

A

Sensitive. Includes all scores in the data set giving an inclusive impression of the numerical average than the median or the mode.

Easily distorted. One anaomaly can make the mean become unrepresentative if the data. Limtation compared to the median or the model which tend not to be distorted by extreme values

182
Q

Strength and limitation of the median

A

Not affected by extreme scores. It only focuses on middle value. Thus the median may be more representative of the data set.

Less sensitive than the mean. Not all scores are included in the calculation. Ignores the extremes of the data which may be relevant to understanding all the data

183
Q

Strength and limitation of the mode

A

Only measure appropriate for categorical data. When data is discrete it does not make sense to use the median or the mean. Sometimes the mode is the only appropriate measure.

There may be many modes in a data set. If all scores in a data set are different the mode is every score in the data set. It is not a useful way of describing data when there are many modes.

184
Q

What are the two measures of dispersion

A

Range

Standard deviation

185
Q

What does the term dispersed refer to

A

How widely data is spread out

186
Q

If we wish to describe data it is good to use what

A

Measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion

187
Q

What is range

A

The difference between highest to lowest (+1)

188
Q

How do you work out the range

A

Arrange all data in order and subtract the lowest value from the highest value and adding 1.

189
Q

Why do you add 1 in the range

A

It’s a mathematical correction and allo s for the fact that raw scores are often rounded up or down when they are recorded within research

190
Q

What is standard deviation

A

Measure of the average spread around the mean

191
Q

How dot you calculate standard deviation

A

Work out for each item of data the difference between the item and the mean value for the data set. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the data is.

192
Q

Strength and weakness of range

A

Easy to calculate. It’s a simple formula to apply and is much easier to calculate than the standard deviation.

Does not account for the distribution of the numbers. Does not say whether most number are closely grouped around the mean or spread out evenly. Standard deviation is better in that respect.

193
Q

Strength and weakness of standard deviation

A

More precise than range. It includes all values within the calculation. Means it gives a much more accurate picture of the overall distribution of the numbers in a data set.

May be misleading. May hide some characteristics of the data like extreme values. Extreme values may not be revealed unlike with the range.

194
Q

What are the six displays of quantitative data

A 
Visual presentation 
Bar chart
Histogram
Line graph 
Scattergram
Table
195
Q

What is looking at visual presentation of data sometimes called

A

Eyeballing the data

196
Q

Characteristics of bar charts

A

Height of each column represents the frequency of that item.

Discrete data are placed along the x axis and usually frequency in the y axis.

197
Q

Characteristics of histograms

A

The bars touch each other which shows continuous data rather than discrete.
X-axis is made up of equal-sized intervals of a single category broken down into intervaLs.
Unlike bar charts histograms have a true zero and a logical sequence.
Y-axis is frequency.

198
Q

Characteristics of linegtaphs

A

Frequency is again usually on one axis but this time the data along the other axis must be continuous and the plotted values are joined by a line.
Line shows how something changes in value.

199
Q

Characteristics of scattergram

A

Used for correlations analysis. It is a scatter of dots. Each dot represents a pair of data. Data on both axes must be continuous.

200
Q

Characteristics of tables

A

Raw scores converted to descriptive statistics such as measures of central tendency and dispersion.
Data organised in columns and rows to make interpretation easier.

201
Q

What are the two types of distribution

A

Normal distribution

Skewed distribution

202
Q

What is a normal distribution

A

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak

203
Q

Describe normal distribution

A

Most people are located in the middle area of the curve with very few people st the extreme ends. The mean, median and more all occupy the same mid-point of the curve. The tails of the curve never touch the horizontal xaxis and therefore never reach zero. They are extremely scores and are always theoretically possible

204
Q

What is a skewed distribution

A

Not all distributions form such a balanced symmetrical pattern. Skewed distribution is a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end

205
Q

What is a positive skew

A

One where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph resulting in a long tail on the right

206
Q

Example of a positive skew

A

Difcult test in which most people got low marks with only a handful of students at the higher end

207
Q

The mean, median and mode in a positive skew

A

Mode: remains at the highest point of the peak
Median: comes next to the right
Mean: is dragged across to the right

208
Q

In a positive skew why is the mean dragged to the right

A

Extreme scores affect the mean. High scoring candidates in a test would have the effect of pulling the mean to the right

209
Q

What is a negative skew

A

Type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left side) of the leak and most of the distribution is concentrated in the right

210
Q

Mean median and mode in a negative skew

A

Mode: highest peak
median: in the middle
Mean: pulled to the left (due to lower scorers being in the minority)

211
Q

How to calculate percentages

A

Something divided by total number of participants multiplied by 100

212
Q

How to convert a percentage to a decimal

A

Remove the % sign.

Move decimal two places to the left.

213
Q

How to convert a decimal to a fraction

A

Work out number of decimal places in the number.
If there are two decimal places divide by 100 if there are three divided by 1000. E.g 83/1000.
Simplify

214
Q

How do you calculate the ratios

A

Calculate a part- to-whole ratio. Or a part-to-part ratio.

Simplify.

215
Q

What is a significant figure

A

Giving a rough idea of a number by substituting zeros as place holders. For example 432,567 to two significant figures is 430,000

216
Q

What is standard form

A

Another way of expressing very large or very small numbers

217
Q

How to work out standard form

A

Calculate how many places you move the decimal point to the left in order to get a number less than 10 or for a small number you move the decimal to the right and it’s a minus power

218
Q

What does&raquo_space; mean

A

Much greater than

219
Q

What is the &laquo_space;sign

A

Much less than

220
Q

What is the proportional sign

A

Infinity sign without the right side

221
Q

What does a wavy equals mean

A

Approximately equal to

222
Q

What is a significant

A

A statistical term indicating that the resrch findings are sufficiently strong to enable a resrcher to reject the null hypothesis under test and accept the resrch hypothesis

223
Q

What is a significant difference

A

Sufficient enough to be considered worth of notice

224
Q

To find out if the difference found is significant or occurred by chance what do we do

A

Use a statistical test

225
Q

What is the accepted level of probability in psychology

A

0.05

226
Q

What does a 0.05 probability mean

A

There is a 5% probability that the results occurred by chance so hyptoshsis can be accepted

227
Q

What are statistical tests designed by

A

Mathematicians to work out what data value would be beyond chance

228
Q

What must be compared with what to determine significance

A

Calculated value with a critical value

229
Q

What is a calculated value

A

Value of a test statistic calculated for a particular data set

230
Q

What is a critical value

A

Value that a test statistic must reach in order for the null hypothesis to be rejected

231
Q

What three pieces of information is needed to determine the critical value

A

Desired significance level / 0.05
Number of participants in the investigation / n value
Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional (one tailed or two)

232
Q

What is the sign test for

A

To analyse the differences in scores between related items e.g same participants tested twice

233
Q

How to calculate the sign test

A
  1. Pairs of scores for participants arranged in a table
  2. Score for condition B substrates from condition A to produce sign of difference (either plus or minus)
  3. Total number of pluses and minus calculated
  4. Participants who achieved the same score in condition A and B should be disregarded and deducted from the N value
  5. The calcuslted value is the total of the less frequent sign
234
Q

For the sign test when should the experimental hypothesis be accept

A

If the calculated value is less than the relevant critical value in the table

235
Q

Before a peice of tearful can be published ina journal what must it be subject to

A

Peer review

236
Q

What is peer review

A

Assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure resrch is high quality

237
Q

What should the peers in peer reviews be

A

Experts in the field
Objective
Unknown to the resrcher

238
Q

What are three aims of peer review

A

Allocate resrch funding perhaps by government-run funding organisations

Validate the quality, accuracy and relevance of resrch - done by assessing hypothesis, methods, statistical tests and conclusions

Suggest amendments or improvements -or in extreme cases conclude work is inappropriate for publication

239
Q

Example of a government run funding organisation

A

Medical resrch council

240
Q

Strength of peer review

A

Protects the quality of published research. The fact all elements are scrutinised by experts minimises fraudulent. Also means resrch in journals is of the highest quality. Preserves the reputation of psychology as a science and increases credibility and study of the subject as a whole

241
Q

Limitation of peer review

A

Some reviewers may use it as a way of critiquing rival resrch. They could use their animist to criticise good rival work. Resrchers are often in competition for limited funding so may give negative appraisal for this reason

242
Q

Issue with publication bias in peer review

A

Publication bias. The natural tendency for editors to want to publish significant ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase circulation of their publication. Could mean that good resrch is ignored or disregarded

243
Q

How does attachment resrch into the role of the fathers benefit the economy

A

Recent research has dressed the importance of multiple attachments. If both parents are equally capable of providing for the child this promotes more flexible working arrangements in the family. If mother is the higher earner and works longner hours the couple can share the childcare responsibilities instead of it just being the mother. Means modern parents are better equipped to maximise their income

244
Q

How has the development of treatments for mental illnesses affected the economy

A

Absense from work costs the economy £15 billion a year and a third of all days off are caused by mental disorders such as depression. Resrch into causes and treatments have an important role to play in maintaining a healthy workforce. Means sufferers can manage their conditions effectively, return to work and make a valuable contribution to the economy

245
Q

What is the correlation coefficient

A

Statistical tests of correlation produce a numerical value somewhere between -1 and +1. The closer to either 1 is the stronger the relationship. Closer to zero the weaker the relationship.

246
Q

What does the value of +1 represent

A

Positive correlation

247
Q

Value of -1 represents

A

Negative correlation

248
Q

What are the positives to case studies

A

Detailed and in depth
Unusual and also typical cases (like rare disorders or memories of childhood)
Usually qualitative but can produce quantitative data
Longitudinal

249
Q

Strength of case studies

A

Provide rich, detailed information. May be preferred to superficial data collected from questionnaires etc. May increase validity

250
Q

Limitation of case studies

A

Prone to researcher bias. Subject in the final report is based on subjective selection of the researcher so subject to bias. May have negative impact

251
Q

What is content analysis

A

Observational resection in which people are studied indirectly via the communications they had produced. Aims to summarise the communication in a systematic way so conclusions scan be drawn

252
Q

What is he initial stage of content analysis

A

Coding

253
Q

What is used in content analysis

A

Coding units

254
Q

What do coding units do

A

They are meaningful units which can be used to involve counting up the number of times w particular word of order appears in the text

255
Q

What does content analysis produce

A

Quantitative data

256
Q

Example of content analysis producing qualitative data

A

Thematic analysis

257
Q

What is thematic analysis

A

Inductive approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded which can be used with a new set of data to test the validity of the themes

258
Q

Strength of content analysis

A

It is flexible. Can be adapted to produce both qualitative and quantitative data. Means it can be adapted to suit the aims of the research

259
Q

Limitation of content analysis

A

May lack objectivity. Modern analysts are clear about rheir own biases affecting research but content analysis still lacks objectivity especially when more descriptive forms of thematic analysis are used. May threaten validity.

260
Q

What is reliability

A

Reliability means consistency. Tested on one day should be the same the next.

261
Q

Two ways to test reliability

A

Test-retest
Inter-observer
Intra-observer

262
Q

What is the test-retest method

A

Administrating the same test or questionnaire to the same person on different occasions. If the questionnaire is reliable then he results should be the same

263
Q

What is test-retest method used to assess

A

Questionnaires or psychological tests like IQ

264
Q

What is the coefficient for a strong positive relationship

A

Exceeds 0.80

265
Q

What should the time period be between the tests in the test retest methods

A

Significant enough to ensure the respondents cannot recall their answers to the questions but not so long that their attitudes or abilities have chsngedn

266
Q

What is inter-observer reliability

A

St least two people should record observations to reduce subjectivity of data collected. Resechers should establish reliability between themselves to ensure they are making similar observations

267
Q

When is inter-observer reliability used

A

Observational research

Done in pilot studies

268
Q

What is a pilot study

A

A small scale trial run of the observation to check the observers are applying behavioural categories in the same way

269
Q

How do observers compare observations to decide if the inter-observer reliability is right

A

They use a pilot study where they watch the same event or sequence of events but record their data seperatedly. This should then be correlated to assess its reliability and the correlation coefficient should exceed 0.80. Other wise the researchers need to revisit and tchange the categories

270
Q

What is intra-observer reliability

A

If resrcher is working alone the sequence of events should be recorded and observed by the same person twice. Correlation analysed between the two sets of data

271
Q

How is the reliability of questionnaires improved

A

Replace some of the open questions with closed, fixed choice alternatives which are less ambiguous

272
Q

How is the reliability of interviews improved

A

Use the same interviewer each time. Train all interviewed so they don’t ask leading questions or ambiguous ones.

273
Q

Which type of interview is less likely to be reliable

A

Unstructured

274
Q

How is the reliability of experiments ensured

A

Maintaining strict control of many aspects of the procedure, such as the instructions that the participants receive and the conditions within which they are tested. Use standardised procedures.

275
Q

How is the reliability of observations improved

A

Making sure the behavioural categories have been properly operationalised. They shouldn’t be overlapping either. If they aren’t operationalised or are overlapping or absent the observations may be inconsistent

276
Q

What is validity

A

Refers to whether a psychological test, observation or experience by produces a legitsmste result.

277
Q

What are the types of validity

A

Interval validity
External validity
Ecological validity
Temporal validity

278
Q

What is internal validity

A

Whether the researcher has managed to measure what they intended to measure

279
Q

What is external validity

A

The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the research setting in which they were found

280
Q

An instant of data being reliable but not valid

A

A broken set of scale may consistently read someone’s weight wrong. The scales are reliable but the weight that is reported is not ‘true’

281
Q

What is ecological validity

A

A form of external validity and refers to whether findings can be generalised from one setting to another, most particularly to everyday life such as learning a lists of words that people don’t usually do

282
Q

Why is temporal validity

A

The extent to which findings from a particular study holds true over time.

283
Q

Example of a study with low temporal validity

A

Rates of conformity in Asch’s study was a product of a particular conformist era in recent American history

284
Q

What are the two ways to assess validity

A

Face validity

Concurrent validity

285
Q

What is face validity

A

Does it appear to measure what it’s supposed to measure. Achieved by simply eyeballing the measuring instrument or by passing it to an expert to check that it appears to be testing what it is meant to

286
Q

What is concurrent validity

A

When the results obtained are very close to those obtained on another recognised and well established test.

287
Q

How do you improve validity in experiments

A

Using a control group means the researcher is better able to assess whether changes in the DV were due to the effect of the IV.
Standardise procedures.

288
Q

What does standardising procedure minimise

A

Impact of participant reactivity and investigator effects on the validity of the outcome. The use of single blind and double blind procedures are designed to achieve the same.

289
Q

How do you improve validity in questionnaires

A

Incorporate a lie scale within the questions in order to assess the consistency of a respondents response and to control for the effects of social desirability bias.
Also improved by assuring respondents all data is anonymous

290
Q

What is a lie scale

A

Set of questions in a survey to determine the extent to which the participants answers are truthful

291
Q

How do you improve validity in behavioural categories

A

Categories have to be well-defined and operationalised to improve the validity of the data collected

292
Q

How do you improve validity in qualitative data

A

Consider the interpretive validity of their conclusions. This can be seen through the coherence of their reporting and inclusion of quotes from participants.

Triangulation - using a number of different sources as evidence

293
Q

What is interpretive validity

A

The match between the meaning attributed to participants behaviours and the actual participants perspectives

294
Q

What is triangulation

A

Using a number of difference sources as evidence

295
Q

What are statistical tests used to see

A

If the results are due to chance or not.

The outcome tells the researcher whether they should accept or reject the null hypothesis

296
Q

How to choose a statistical test

A

Difference or correlation
Experimental design
Level of measurement

297
Q

What are the two types of experimental design

A

Unrelated design

Related design

298
Q

What is an unrelated design

A

Participants in each condition of an independent groups design are different, therefore unrelated

299
Q

What is a related design

A

Repeated measures and matched pairs are referred to as related designs

300
Q

What are the three levels of measurements

A

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval

301
Q

What is nominal data

A

Data in the form of categories. It’s discrete

302
Q

What is ordinal data

A

Data that has been placed in rank order

303
Q

Why is ordinal data sometimes referred to as unsafe data

A

It lacks precision because it is based on subjective opinion rather than objective measures. That’s why raw ordinal data isn’t used it is instead ranked.

304
Q

What is interval data

A

Based on numerical scales that include units of equal, precisely defined size. Public scales of measure to that produces data based on accepted unit of measurements

305
Q

What are parametric tests

A

A group of inferential statistics that make certain assumptions about the parameters (characteristics) of the population form which a sample is drawn

306
Q

What are the different statistical test

A 
Chi squared
Mann-Whitney 
Unrelated t-test
Sign test
Wilcoxon 
Related t-test
Chi-squared 
Spearmans rho
Pearsons r
307
Q

What is the way to remember the statistical tests

A 
Can 
My 
Uterus
Stop 
With
Ridiculous
Cramps
Stupid
Pricks
308
Q

If the statistical test is not significant what is accepted

A

The null hypothesis

309
Q

What do statistical tests work on

A

The basis of probability rather than certainty

310
Q

What is a significance level

A

The point st which the researcher can claim to have discovered a significant different or correlation within the data. The point the resrcher chs reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis

311
Q

What is the usual level of significance

A

0.05

312
Q

How do you calculate df for related t-test

A

N-1

313
Q

How do you work out df for unrelated t-test

A

Na + Nb - 2

314
Q

What is the formula for a chi-squared test

A

E = (row total x column total)/ overall total

315
Q

What is the calculated value

A

The value of a test statistic calculated for a particular data set

316
Q

What is a critical value

A

When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis

317
Q

What are he three criteria the researcher must use to know what critical value to use

A

One- tailed or two-tailed test.
Number of participants in the study - N or degrees of freedom.
Level of significance to use (usually 0.05).

318
Q

The lower the p value, the ____

A

More statistically significant of result

319
Q

What is a type | error

A

Null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when it should have been the other way around.
Often referred to as a false positive.

320
Q

What is a type || error

A

When the null hypothesis is accepted but he alternative should have been because they alternative was ‘true’.
False negative.

321
Q

When are we likely to make a type | error

A

If significant level is too lenient

322
Q

When is a type || error more likely

A

If significance level is too stringent like 0.01

323
Q

Why do psychologists favour the 5% level of significance

A

Best balances the risk of making a type | or type || error

324
Q

What are the 6 sections of a scientific report

A 
The abstract
The introduction
The method
The results
The discussion
Referencing
325
Q

What is the abstract in a scientific report

A

It is a short summary (150-200)that includes all he major elements: aims and hypotheses, methods, results and conclusions.

Psychology Alevel (9 decks)

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