Relationships Flashcards
What is anisogamy
The differences between the male and female sex cells e.g sperm are small, mobile and continuously produced whereas ova are large, static and produced with a limited
What are he consequences of anisogamy
There are plenty of fertile males but fewer females and this gives rise to different mating strategies
What is inter-sexual selection
Selection of mates between sexes e.g females selecting males. This is the preferred strategy of the female - quality over quantity.
Why is it crucial that females are choosy in terms of a mates reproductive fitness
The female invests more time, commitment and other resources before during and after the birth of her offspring. They want to choose a male that will provide healthy offspring and support them with resources.
Example of the preference of females determining which attributes are passed on
If height is a genuine marker of fitness in males the females who choose the tallest mates will have greatest reproductive success. Innate preferences for tallness is psssed on to daughters who choose tall men and are more reproductively successful. Over time taller and taller men are selected. Known as a runaway process
What is intra-sexual selection
Involved males competing with others males for mates. Have to compete because females are limited and choosy. Men who compete successfully can pass on their genes and therefore traits that led to their success are continued. Quantity over quality
What certain patterns of human reproductive behaviour does intra-sexual selection lad to
Male aggression - those who act aggressively are more likely to win a competition with other males
Preference for youthful and fertile woman - better chance of reproductive success
Male desire to optimise mating chances by fertilising as many females as possible - ensures preference genes to the next generation
What is human reproductive behaviour
Any behaviour which related to opportunities to reproduce and thereby increase the survival changes of our geneS. Includes evolutionary mechanisms underlying our partner preferences
Strength for the relationship between intra-sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour
Research support. Buss surveyed 10,000 adults in 33 countries asking about partner preference. Females placed greater value on resource related characteristics than males did whereas males valued reproductive capacity. Supports sex differences due to anisogamy and the findings can be applied across many cultures
Strength of the relationship between inter-sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour
Research support. Clark and Hatfield sent students onto a campus to ask other students to have sex with them. No females agreed but 75% of males did. Supports the suggestion that female choosiness is a reality and mars have evolved to ensure their reproductive success
Limitation of the evolutionary idea of partner preferences
Partner preferences have changed too rapidly to be explained in evolutionary terms. Chang reported preferences have changed while others stayed the same over 25 years in china. Suggests that both evolutionary and cultural influences must be taken into account when explaining human reproductive behaviour
What are the theee factors affecting attraction
Self disclosure
Physical attractiveness
Filter theory
Four theories of romantic relationships
Social exchange theory
Equity theory
Rusbults investment model
Ducks phase model
What does self disclosure early in a relationship enable
Partners to better understand each other
Who decided the social penetration theory
Altman and Taylor
What does the social penetration theory suggest
When a partner reveals personal information they display trust. Development of the relationship require the other person to reveal sensitive informations. Increasing disclosure allows a partner to penertrate into the other persons life leading to increased understanding of other person
What does a recognition that a partner is willing to reveal sensitive information about themselves indicate
A relationship has reached a certain development stage
How does social penetration theory explain how self disclosure leads to development in relationships
As partners increasingly disclose more information then romantic partners penetrate more deeply into each other’s lives and gain greater understanding
What is the breadth and depth of self disclosure as the beginning of a relationship
Limited. A lot of information if revealed but the depth is narrow and the content superficial as we avoid offlimit subjects
As relationships develop what is likely to happen
We become more likely to reveal intimate information including painful memories and secrets
Who suggested there needs to be reciprocity in self disclosure for a relationship to develop
Reis and Shaver
Strength of social penetration theory
Support from research studies. Hendrick found strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self disclosure in heterosexual couples supporting the theory.
Strength of social penetration theory (applications)
Real life applications. Hass and Stafford found that 57% of gay people in their study said that open and honest self disclosure was a main way they maintained and deepened their relationship. Couples who use small talk can be encouraged to increase self disclosure to deepen their relationships. Supports people who are experiencing relationship problems
Limitation of social penetration theory
Do not apply to all cultures. Tang concluded that men and women in US self disclosure is significantly more sexual thoughts and feeling than men and women in China. Both have self disclosure but different types so it is a limited explanation of romantic relationships which are not necessarily generalisable
What is physical attractiveness related to
Symmetry, honest signal of genetic fitness because being symetrical requires robust genes. Therefore a partner who selects someone with a symmetrical Face is more likely to produce offspring with robust genes.
What is an honest signal
One that can’t easily be faked
What is physical attractiveness
Usually applies specifically to how appealing we find a persons face. General agreement across cultures about what is considered physically attractive
What are neotenous features
Baby face hypothesis.
Baby like features like widely separated eyes and small nose
Why are neotenous features seen as physically attractive
They are thought to trigger protective and caring instincts.
What kind of explanations are based on physical attractiveness
Evolutionary ones. We have evolved a liking for physical attractiveness because it is a signal of high quality
What did McNulty found
The initial attractiveness coninuted to be an important feature of the relationships after marriage, for at least several years
What does the halo effect describe
How we hold preconceived ideas about other attributes of attractive people and those other attributes are overwhelmingly positive because of the persons physical attractiveness
What did Dion find
That physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful compared with unattractive people. Suggested that certain characteristics have a disproportionate effect on judgements of other characters
Who came up with the matching hypothesis
Walster et al
What does the matching hypothesis state
We choose partners that are often of the same level of attractiveness to ourselves and to do this we need to assess our own value to a potential partner.
Why is choosing a partner basically a compromise
Evolutionary theories suggest we seek the most attractive mates but we have to balance the potential for being rejected because the partner we aim for is ‘out of our league’ in terms of attractiveness
Strength of the halo effect
Research support. Palmer and Peterson found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgable and competent than unattractive people. Obvious implications for political process suggesting that politicians might be elected because they are considered physically attractive by voters. Suggests the halo effect can be observed in real life sitstuions
Limitation for the matching hypothesis
Mixed support. we choose our partners based on our own attractiveness. However more recently Taylor found that online daters sought dated with potential partners that were more attractive than themselves. This does not support the hypothesis and suggests it no longer explains preference in a useful way
Strength of consistency of what is considered attractive
What is found attractive is pretty similar across cultures. Cunningham found that females with large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated attractive by white, Hispanic and Asian males. Consistency across cultures suggest that physical attractiveness is culturally independent and may have evolutionary roots
Limitation of not everyone seeing physical attractiveness as important
Participants who scored highly on the MACHO scale were more influenced by attractiveness when making judgment of likability. Lowers scorers were less influenced. Seems that individual differences play a role in physical attractiveness. Suggests that effects of physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors and may not be as significant a consideration in relationship forming for all partners
Who proposed the filter theory
Kerckoff and Davis
What does the filter theory explain
Attraction in terms The attitude and personalities of people. First we consider the field availables and from those we select the field desirables
What is the field of availabled
The pool of potential partners who are accessible to us
What is the field of desirables
Narrowed down field of availables. Selected via three factors which are of differing important st different stages of a relationships
What are the three filters in the filter theory
Social demography
Similarity in attitudes
Complementarity
What is social demographic
Features that describe populations including geographical location and social class. Filters out large number of partners
What is the filter similarity in attitudes mean
Partners that share our basic values are attractive in the earlier stages of a relationship so we tend to discount available invididuals who differ
What is complementarity
Similarity becomes less important as relationship develops, it’s replaced by a need for your partner to balance your traits with opposite ones of their own
Examples of social demography factors
Proximity
Social clsss
Education
What is homogamy
Likelihood we are likely to form a relationship with someone who shares many social and culutrual similarities as we find this attractive
How long did Kerckoff and Davis suggest similarity in attitudes is important in a relationship
Only for the couples who had been together less than 18 months.
In early stages of a relationship agreeing on basic values encourages communication and self disclosure
What did Byrne find
Similarity in attitudes causes attention and describes it as the law of attraction, stressing its important. Where similarities don’t exist relationships fade quickly
Example of complementarity
One partner may enjoy making someone laugh and the other one enjoy laughing
When is complementarity important
In longer term/later stages of a relationship
Strength of the filter theory
Research support. Winch found similarity of personality etc are typical in earliest stages of relationship but complementarity is needed to keep a relationship going. Supports st least two of the filters proposed in filter theory. Validity of theory has been supported in surveys of actual relationships
Limitation of filter theory
Lacks temporal validity. As the dating world changed to become increasingly only social demography has taken on less importance as the likelihood of dating someone outside of your culture has increased. Not predicted by the the theory shows it lacks temporal validity
Limitation of filter theory (complementarity)
Complementarity may not become more important than similarity. Rusbult discovered an attitude alignment effect in long term relationships. Romantic partners bring their attitudes to align with one and others suggesting similarity is an effect of initial attraction and not a cause. Suggests complementarity filter may not be reached in the case of all relationships and therefore the validity of filter theory is questioned
What has the increase in use of social media mean
Psychologists have to look at differences between the relationships formed and maintained online and those formed face to face
What are virginal relationships also known as
Computer-mediated communication (CMC)
What are the two main theories about virtual raltionshios
Reduced cues theory
Hyperpersonal model
What does the reduced cues theory state
CMC relationships are less effective because they lack many of the nonverbal cues we rely on in FTF interactions such as our physical appear each and an indictstion of our emotion
Who created the reduced cues theory
Sproull and Kiesler
What is emotional state normally indicated by
Tone of voice and facial expressions
What does the lack of cues lead to
De-individuation and disinhibitation follows because people feel freer form the constraints of societies norms. Lead to blunt and even aggressive communication
What is de-individuation
A psychological state where an individual loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of a social group
What is disinhibition
Normal social constraints against certain behaviours can be weakened by environmental triggers
What is the upside to lack of cues
Lack of self disclosure
What does the hyperpersonal model propose
Early self disclosure means that CMC relationships develop quickly and can become more intense and intimate. They can also end more quickly because of a mix match between low levels of trust and high excitement
Who proposed the hyperpersonal model
Walther
Why does the hyperpersonal model suggest that self disclosure is different in CMC rather than FTF
Because of the opportunity to manipulate an online image to decide what and how they present themselves. This means people feel less accountable for their actions and disclose more than they would to their close non-online partners
Who argued that a huge advantage of CMC is the absence of gating
McKenna and Bargh
What is the absence of gating
FTF relationships often fail to form because of obstacles like a stammer a facial disfigurement etc but online these ‘gates’ are absent allowing virtual relationships to begin and develop in a way they perhaps couldn’t in an offline world
Why is the absence of gating good
Because relationships can develop to the point where self disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper and the gates are less of an issue
Example of somebody benefiting from absense of gating
Introvert can become more extrovert online and their personality is no longer an obstacle
Negative example of absense of gating
A man can become a woman
Strength for absense of gating
Support. McKenna and Bargh found that lonely and anxious people could express their true selves online. 70% of the relationships formed online survived more than two years which is higher than those that formed offline. Suggests that CMC can be helpful to support people who are socially anxious to help build relationships. Supports the absense of gating.
Limitation of explanations of virtual relationships
Fail to recognise the multimodel nature of CMCs. Theories need to incorporate the fact that relationships are usually conducted both online and offline. The online interaction will influence the FTF interaction including the self disclosure so they should be considered together not separately. Suggests that current theories may underestimate the complexity of virtual relationships
Limitation of reduced cues theory
Lack of research support. Walther asserted that cues in CMCs are simply different from those in FTF ones. Suggests there’s plenty of cues in CMC but they are just not the nonverbal ones in FTF. Emojis are considered effective substitutes in CMCs so the proposals of reduced cues seems unfounded. Suggests no difference in self disclosure between CMC and FTF relationships which doesn’t support reduced cues theory
Strength of the hyperpersonal model
Supporting research. Whitty found evidence for both hyper honest and hyperdisonest online disclosures. For example questions asked online tend to be very direct and probing but FTF discussions hedge around small talk. Consistent with the prediction of the hyperpersonal model that these are distinctive types of disclosure in CMC
Who created the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
Maltby
What is a parasocial relationship
A three step description of one sided relationships
The three levels of parasocial relationships
Entertainment-social level
Intense personal level
Borderline pathological
What is the entertainment social level
Least intense level. Celebrities are viewed as a source of entertainment and fuel for social interaction
What is the intense personal level
Intermediate level where someone becomes more personally involved with a ncelebrite which may involve obsessive thoughts
What’s the borderline pathological level
Strongest level of celebrity worship where fantasies are uncontrollable and behaviour is more extreme
Who created the absorption-addiction model
McCuteon
What is the absorption-addiction model
Explains parasocial relationships as total absorption into a celebrity’s life, plus an addictive striving for stronger involvement
What does McCutcheon believe his absorption addiction model suggest about parasocial relationships
They make up for the deficiencies in people life’s like lack of fulfilment and an escape from mundane life
What is absorption in the absorption addiction model
Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motives the individual to focus much of their attention of the celebrity to become absorbed in the celebrity’s existence and identify with them
What is addiction in the absorption addiction model
Like a physiological addiction, the individual needs to increase their dose of involvement to continue to feels stisfied. This may lead to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking
How does Bowlbys attachment theory link early attachment problems to parasocial relatiosnhuos
Suggests that earthly difficulties in attachment leads to difficulties forming successful relationships later in life. Such difficulties may lead to preference for forming parasocial relationships to replace those within ones own social cicrcle because parasocial relationships do not require the same skills
Which attachment type are most likely to form parasocial relationships
Insecure-resistant because they want to have their unfulfilled needs met in a relationship where there is no real threat of rejection, break up or disappointment
Which attachment type avoids the pain and rejection of relatiosnhuos all together
Insecure avoidant
Limitation of the attachment theory linking to parasocial relationships
Support is poor. mcCutcheon found that participants with insecure attachments were no more likely to form parasocial relationships with celebrities than participants with secure attachment types. This is a key assumption of this explanation and failure to find support for it raises a crucial question about the validity. Limitation of using attachment theory because it had little predictive strength
Strength of the absorption-addiction model
Research support. maltby found links between celebrity worship and body image with female adolescents reporting to have and intense personal relationship with a female celebrity whose shape they admired. These females had poor body image which can be a precursor to development of eating disorders such as anorexia nervous. Supports the model because it shows a correlation between the level of celebrity worship and different or disordered psychological functioning
Limitation of the absorption-addiction model
It is descriptive rather than explanatory. Describes the characteristics of people involved with celebrities at different levels of intensity but not why the different forms develop. Does not help us prevent the more dangerous and disturbing forms. Limited in explanatory power and it’s application for supporting people whose celebrity worship has become problematic
Strength of attachment explanations in parasocial relationships
Cross cultural resection. Schmidt and Klimmt found similar levels of parasocial attachment to Harry Potter in an individualist culture (Germany) and a collectivist culture (mexico). So it would seem this tendency is not culturally specific. Suggest the need to form parasocial relationships may be universal and innate, perhaps an adaptive behaviour
Who created the social exchange theory
Thibault and Kelley
What does the social exchange theory assumed
That satisfaction in a relationship is judged in economic terms. Partners conideiser the profit that a relationship provides the with by judging the perceived value of costs minus the value of rewards
What is the minimax principle in social change theory
Trying to maximise profits and minimising costs and ensuring they are getting the best possible amount of rewardsz
If profit is perceived to be high in a relationship what is likely to happen
The relationship is most likely to continue
What are example of costs in social exchange theory
Time and stress
Example of reward in the social exchange theory
Sex
Praise
Companionship
Opportunity cost
What is opportunity cost
Your investment of time and energy in your currtent relationship means using resources that you cannot invest elsewhere
What is the comparison level
The judgment of the reward level that we expect in a relationship.
What is the CL determined by
Previous relationships and social norms. Social norms are reflections of relationships in the media and over time we learn more about what we should expect
Why might someone have a low CL
If they have low self esteem their comparison line will be low so they will pursue a lower style relationship
What is the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)
Involved considering whether we might gain more rewards and endure fewer costs in a different relationship, assuming that we select only one partner. Theory predicts that we will remain in a relationship despite available alternatives when we consider it more rewarding than others
What did Duck suggest about the CLalt
That there are always alternatives around but we only notice them if we are unsatisfied e.g costs are running high in a relationship and profit low
What are the stages a relationship goes through as proposed by the social exchange theory
Sampling stage
Bargaining stage
Commitment stage
Institutionalisation stage
What is the sampling stage
We explore the rewards and costs of raltionships by experimenting in our own relationships and observing those of others
What’s the bargaining stage
Occurs st the start of a relationship where romantic partners negotiate around costs and benefits
What’s the commitment stage
Relationships are more stable and costs decrease will rewards increase
What is the institutionalisation stage in the social exchange theory
Partners become settled and he norms of a relationship are established
Limitation of social exchange theory
Assumes all relationships are based on economic exchange. Clark and Mills suggested that Some relationships can be exchanged based e.g work colleagues but communal relationships like romantic partners are marked by giving and receiving of rewards without calculating profits. Suggests that SET may not provide a suitable explanation for the course of all types of relationships
Limtation of SET (equity)
It does not consider equity. Focuses on comparison levels but ignores the fact that many romantic partners desire fairness or equity. Much research support for role of equity in relationships e.g Hatfield found that couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who saw themselves overbenefitting or underbenefiting. Suggests SET is a limited explanation of relationships only accounting for a proportion of the research findingsZ
What is equity
A state of balance or fairness
What is underbenefitting
In equity theory where the perceived ratio of costs to rewards is perceived as low and unfair leading to dissatisfaction
What is overbenefitting
In equity theory where the Percieved ratio of costs to rewards is perceived as high and unfair leading to dissatisfaction
Limitation of SET (dissatisfaction before lack of profit)
SET proposes people become dissatisfied when costs outweighs rewards or alternatives present themselves. Miller found that people who rated themselves in a highly committed relationship spent ‘less time looking’ at images of attractive people. Could be argued that SET assumes the wrong direction of cause and effect. Rather than lack of profit leading to dissatisfaction it can be argued we don’t consider profit until after we are disatisifed
Who peppered the equity theory
Walster
What is the equity theory
Both partners level of profit should be roughly the same and is fair
When can a lack of equity occur
When one partner overbenefits and the other underbeenfits from the relationship. This can cause dissatisfaction and unhappiness
What feeling would an underbenefitting partener feel
Anger and resentment
What feelings would the overbenefitting partner fee
Discomfort and shame
What are satisfying relationships thought to involve
Negotiations to achieve and maintain equity. Often the negotiations involve trade offs to achieve a sense of fairness.
Example of equity
One partner puts a lot into the relationship but also gets a lot out of it it will seem fair
What does equity theory predict a strong correlation between
The greater the perceived inequality; the greater the dissatisfation.applies to both overbenefitting partner and under.
When are changed in equity likely to occur
During a relationship. At the beginning It may feel natural to contribute more than you receive but if the situation doesn’t change as the relationship develops the satisfaction with the relationship will fall
The greater the inequality the more….
Work is required to restore a sense of fairness
When inequality is addressed in a relationship what kind of change is it
A cognitive one as opposed to a behavioural one
Example of a cognitive change in the equality theory
The partner will revise their perceptions of rewards and costs so that the relationship feels more equitable to them even if nothing changes
What are the negatives of a cognitive change in equity theory
If the perception of rewards and costs are revised then actual abuse can become accepted as the norm for the relationship - reframing ‘cruelty’ as a form of rough treatment for your own good
Limitation of equity theory (not apply)
Might not apply to all relationships. Clark and Mills suggest we should establish between different types of relationships like business and romantic. Studies show that equity plays a central role in casual friendships and work relationships but the evidence that equity is important in relationships is limited. Limitednsupport for equity theory in romantic relationships and it may be better at explaining other forms of relationships
Limitation of equity theory (satisfied relationships)
Satisfied relationships don’t become more equitable over time. Berg and McQuinn found that equity did not increase in their longitudinal study of dating couples as equity theory predicts. Other variables like self disclosure seemed to be more important. strong criticism because it was based on real couples studied over time
Strength of equity theory
Research supports. Utne surveyed 118 recently married couples measuring equity with self report. Found that couples who considered their relationships equitable were more satisfied than those who saw themselves under/over benefiting. Seems profit is not the key in judging relationships rather it s equity. Research supports central predictions of equity theory supporting the validity as an explanation of romantic relationships
Who produced the investment model
Rusbult
What is rusbult investment model
Development of social exchange suggesting that commitment depends on satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives and investment size
What is a satisfying relationship
Where he partners are getting more out of the relationship than they expect, given social norms and their previous experiences
What does the investment model suggest that commitment to a relationship is based on
Investment
Satisfaction
Comparison with alternatives
What is investment
The resources associated with a romantic relationship which the partner would lose if the relationship were to end
What is satisfaction level
The extent to which a romantic partner feels the rewards of he relationship exceed the costs
What is comparison with alternatives
Judgement partners make concerning whether a relationship with a different partner would bring more rewards and fewer costs
What are 5 relationship maintenance mechanisms
Accommodation Willingness to sacrifice Forgiveness Positive illusions Ridiculing alternatives
What are the two types of investment
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
What is intrinsic investment
Any resource we put directly into the relationship including tangible items like money or intangible ideas like energy and self disclosure
What is extrinsic investment
Resources they previously did not feature in the relationship but are now sssocisted with it. Theses include tangible items like a house or intangible shared memories
What does the investment model focus on the determining factor
Commitment
What is commitment
A romantic partners intention or restore to continue a relationship , reflecting a belief that the relationship has w viable long term future
When can we conifidently say we are committed to he relationship
High levels of satisfaction
Alternatives are less attractive
Sizes of investments are increasing
What does the investment model say a dissatisfied partner will stay in a relationship
Level of investment they have made. They will be willing to work hard to repair problems in the relationship so their investment is not wasted
What is accomodstion
Promoting the relationship
What is willingness to sacrifice
Putting the partners interests first
What is forgiveness
Forgiving them for any serious transgression
What are positive illusions
A partner may be unrealistically positive about their partner
What is derogation of alternatives
A partner may be negative about tempting alternatives/ other people relationships
Strength of investment model
May explain why people stay in abusive relationship. Rusbult found that women who reported making the greatest investment and who had the fewest attractive alternatives were likely to return to the partners who abused them z satisfaction can’t explain this but commitment can. Strength because it explained the inexplicable behaviour of staying in an abusive relationship
Limitation of the investment model
Goodfriend and Agnew argue that I’m the early stages of a relationship, few investments have been made and the model needs to take into account investment in future plans. Investment in future plans motivate partners to commit so that the plans can become a reality. This means that the original model is a limited explanation ass it fails to consider the true complexity of investment
Strength of the investment model (support)
Research support for the model. Le and Agnew review 52 studies from 5 countries. Found that satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment all predict relationship commitment. Relationships with the best commitment was the greatest were he most stable and lasted longest. Suggests that the claim that these factors are universally important in relationship is valid ( the study was heterosexual and homosexual)
Who produced the investment model
Rusbult
What is rusbult investment model
Development of social exchange suggesting that commitment depends on satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives and investment size
Who created the phase model
Duck
What is ducks phase model
A Relationship breakdown is a process that takes time and goes through four distinct phases
What are the four phases of ducks model
Intra-psychic phase
Dyadic phase
Social phase
Grave-dressing phase
What is a threshold in ducks phases of attachment
Their perception of the relationship changes. At this point a person may decide the relationship isn’t so bad and then the process of breakdown stops or they cross the threshold into the next stage in the process of breakdown
What is the threshold in the intrapsychic stage
I can’t stand this anymore - indicating a determination that something has changed
Explain the intra-psychic phase
Once a partner cannot carry on with the relationship in its current form thy will start to brood on the reasons for their dissatisfaction, centring mostly on their partners shortcomings.
Keeps their thoughts private, weighing up the pros and cons of the relationships
What is the threshold for the dyadic phase
I would be justified in withdrawing
What is the dyadic phase
Once a partner reaches the conclusion that they would be justified to end the relationship they can no longer avoid discussing this with th it partner.
Phase may vary in length and in intensity of hostility and anxiety
What is the threshold of the social phase
I mean it
What is the social phase
Once a partner becomes clear that they want to end the relationship then they will seek support and try to forge pacts amongst join friends who may be encouraged to choose sides.
Some friends try to prevent the break up but this is usually the point of no return
What is the threshold for the grave digging phase
It’s now inevitable
What is the grave dressing phase
Once the end of the relationship is inevitable then the final phase begins and a suitable story of the relationship and it’s end is prepared for wider consumption. Certainly include an attempt to ensure that the storyteller will be judged more favourably than their ex partner.
This story is necesssry for partners can move on
Limitation of ducks phase model (incomplete)
Duck felt it necessary to add a fifth phase called the resurrection phase where ex-partners begin to use what they have learned from their relationship to prepare for a future one. Additionally the refined version clarifies that movement through the stages is not linear and partners may return to earlier phase. Suggests the phase model is only a partial explanation of the process of relationship breakdown
Limitation of ducks phase model ( retrospective)
Supporting evidence is based on retrospective data. Interviews about breakdown process tend to take place after rather than during the process meaning the information collected may be inaccurate and unreliable after time has passed. Impossible to study the process in the earlier stages without interfering with the ongoing process. Means model is based on limited information about the start of the breakdown process so is incomplete
Strength of ducks phase model
It’s application to helping people reverse the process. Particular repair strategies might be more effective st particular stages such as infra-psychic stage where partners are incouraged to brood more positively. Suggests that the model can lead to support tube suggests that may help people through this very difficult time in their lives
