Issues And Debates Flashcards
What is gender bias
The idea that psychological theory and respect may not represent the experience and behaviour of men and woman.
Why is bias an inevitable part of the research process
Psychologists are normal people who are influenced by the social and historical context within which they live
What is alpha bias
That which exaggerates or overestimated differences between the sexes. Such differences are usually presented as real and and enduring; fixed and inevitable.
Although these differences may occasional heighten the value of woman, they are more likely to devalue woman
What is an example of alpha bias
Sociobiological theory of relationship formation(Wilson).
‘Survival efficiency’ - a males best interest to I’m pregnant as many females as possible to increase the changes of his genes being passed on. For the female she should preserve her genes but ensuring the survival of her offspring.
Sexually promiscuity in males is naturally selected whereas females who engage in the same behaviour are going against their ‘nature’
What is beta bias
Ignores or minimised or underestimated the differences between men and woman. This occurs when female participants are not included as part of research and it is assumed findings apply equally to both sexes
Example of beta bias
Fight or flight response.
Early research was based exclusively on male animals and assumed universal response to a threatening situation.
However Taylor found that females exhibit a trend and befriend response governed by the hormone oxytocin.
What is a consequence of beta bias
Androcentrism
What is androcentrisim
All male behaviour being seen as ‘normal’ meaning that any behaviour that deviates from this standard is likely to be judged as abnormal. This leads to females being misunderstood etc.
Example of androcentirsm
Many feminists object to the category of Pre-menstral syndrome as it sterotypes and trivialises female experience.
Limitation of gender bias in psychological research
May create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, failing to change stereotypes. Provides scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the work place such as the example of PMS. In any domain in which men set the standard for normal woman are hen made to feel abnormal. Gender bias is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging social affects on woman.
Strength of how gender bias may be avoided
Feminist psychologists have put foreword a number of criteria that should be adhered in order to avoid gender bias. Women should be studied with meaningful resolute contexts and participant in the study rather than being objects of the study. Diversity should be examined and greater emphasis on collaborative research methods. This way of research may be preferable and less gender bias than laboratory based research
Limitation of gender bias (essentialist)
Essentialist arguments are common in gender bias research. Essentialist arguments say that the gender difference is inevitable and fixed in nature. Walkerdine reported how intellectual activity would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth. Essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as facts.
What is an essentialist view
That a difference in behaviour such as gender differences is fixed in nature, inevitable and not the result of social processes
What does universal mean
An underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all despite differences of experience and upbringing
What is cultural bias
Refers to a tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of ones own culture. Likely to occur when researchers studies samples of people from one pariticulsr culture only. If the norm for a aparticular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one culture then any cultural differences will be seen as abnormal
Example of study where the results differ when applied to other cultures other than Western
Classic social influence studies of conformity (Asch) and obedience (Milgram) roriginslky using US participants reveal very different results when replicated in other parts of the world
What is ethnocentrism
The belief in the superiority of ones own cultural group. This may refer to the view that the behaviours that don’t conform to the usually western model are someone deficient or underdeveloped
Notable example of ethnocentrism
Ainsworths Strange Situation. She identified the key defining variable of attachment type as the child’s anxiety on separation. She suggested the ideal attachment type was secure but thus led to misinterpretation in other countries. German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence.
What is cultural relativism
The idea that norms and values as well as ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and culutrual context
What is one way of avoiding cultural bias in research
Recognising cultural relativism - things psychologists discover only make sense in the culture they were discovered
What is etic
Looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and tried to describe those behaviours that are universal
What is emic
Functions from within a certain culture and identifies behaviours specific to that culture
Who drew the distinction between emic and etic approaches
Berry
What is imposed etic
A technique or theory developed in one culture and then used to study the behaviour of people in different cultures with different norms, values, experiences e.g The Strange Sitstuion
What is a strength of cultural bias in research
Often in the past when psychologists made refercne to culture they did so within the context of the individualist vs collectivist distinction. Individualist cultures like the US value freedom whereas collectivist cultures like India place more emphasis on interdependence. However critics say this simplistic definition between cultures no longer applies. Takano found no evidence of traditonal distinctions between cultures when comparing the US and Japan. Suggests that cultural bias in reasearch is less of an issue than it used to be
Strength of the recognition of cultural bias
Berry’s concept of imposed etic is a useful reminder to psychologists of the culturally specific nature of their work. It should not be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative and there is no such thing as universal human behaviour. Some features of human attachment such as imitation and interactional synchrony are universal. Full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of both universality and variations amoung individuals and groups
What is imitation
Copying the behaviour of others
What is an individualist culture
A group of people who value the rights and interests of the individual. Results in a concern for independence and self assertiveness
What is a collectivist culture
A group of people who place more value on the collective rather than each individual being most focused on themselves
What is demand characteristic
Any cue from the researcher or the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the invesgition. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation
Limitation of cultural bias in interpreting variables
Variables under review may not be experienced in the same way by all participants. The behavioural expressions of emotions may give quite difffernt behaviours within an indigenous population then they would in the West. In China, invasion of personal space in normal but in the West it is seen as threatening. Issues like these may affect interactions between researcher and paritpants in cross cultural studies and may reduce the validity
Strength of cross cultural respect in cultural bias
Challenge Western Assumptions. Being able to see that some knowledge and concepts are not shared by people around the world may promote greater sensitivity to individual differnces. Means conclusions drawn are likely to be more valid if they recognise the role of culture in bringing them about
What is free will
The idea that we are self-determining and are able to choose their thoughts and actions
What does the concept of tree will not deny
There may be biological and environmental force that exert some influence on our behaviour but implies we are able to reject these forces
What’s approach advocates free will
Humanistic approach
What is the humanistic approach
Understanding behaviour with emphasis on the importance of subject experience and each persons capacity for self determination
What does determinism propose
Free will had no place in explaining our behaviour though there are hard and soft Verdi d
What is hard determinism
Sometimes referred to as fatalism. Suggests that all human behaviour has a cause and it should be possible to identify and describe these causes
What is soft determinism
Acknowledges that all human action has a cause but soft determinists suggest some room for manoeuvre in that people have conscious mental control over the way they behave
Why did William James think
It was the job of scientists to explain the many determining forced acting upon us but this is does not detract from the freedom we have to make rational conscious choices in everyday sitetions
What is the biological determinism
Control from physiological, genetic and hormonal processes
What are physiological processes
Not under our conscious control succsd the influence of the autonomic nervous system
What do genetic factors may determine
Many behaviours and haracteristics such as mental disorders
How many hormones affect behaviour
For example the role testosterone in agreereize behaviour
What is environmental determinism
The behaviourist idea that we’re determined by conditioning - our behaviour has been shaped by environmental events as well as agents of socialisation like parents
What does skinner famously say about free will
It’s an illusion and argued that all behaviour is the result of conditioning
What is psychic determinism
Freudian idea that we’re directed by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood. Placed importance one the infleunce if biological drives and instincts which underpins psychological responses
According to Freud what is there no such thing as
An accident - even something as random as slip of the tongue is determined by the unconscious
What is one of the basic principles of science
Every event in the universe has a cause and that causes can be explained using general laws
How do psychologists simulate conditions to demonstrate a causal effect
Laboratory experiences remove all extraneous variables
Limitation of hard determinism
Not consistent with the way our legal system operates. Offended are held morally accountable for their actions. Only in extreme circumstances is the Law of Diminished Responsibility is applied such as that of mental illness. If we are not in charge of our actions, we shouldn’t be punished for it.
What is a limitation of determinism as an approach to scientific enquiry
It is not falsifiable. Based on the idea that causes of behaviour will always exist, even though they may not yet be found. As a basic principle this is impossible to disprove. Suggests that determinist approach may not be as scientific as it first appears
Strength of free will
Often make choices in everyday life. Everyday experiences give the impression we are constantly making choice. This gives face validity to the idea of free will I.e it makes sense.
Strength of free will having a positive impact
Even if we don’t use free will the fact that we think we do may have a positive impact on mind and body. Research suggest that people who have an internal locus of control believing they have a high degree of influence on events tend to be more mentally healthy.
What is face validity
Determines whether it appears to measure what it is supported to measure
What does falsification mean
Proving the truth of a research hypothesis by demonstration the null version to be false
Strength of determinism
Consistent with the aims of science. Notion that human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws place psychology on equal footing with other sciences increasing its credibility.
Strength of determinism in the development of treatment
The prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments and therapies - drug treatments that manage and control schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is characterised by a total loss of control over thought and behaviour suggests that at least some behaviour is determined
Limitation of free will
Not supported by neurological evidence. Brain studies have revealed evidence against free will. Libet has shown that brain activity determines the outcome of a simple choice may predate our knowledge of having made such a choice. Researcher found that activity related to pressing a button occurs in the brain up to ten seconds before participants report being consciously aware of making such a decision. Shows that even our basic experiences are decided and determined before we are aware
What is nature
Innate and genetic influences, usually 0.5 heritability
What is heredity
The genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another
What is the heritability coefficient
Numerical figure ranging from 0 to 1 which indicates the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis (with the value of 1 meaning it is entirely generically determined)
What suggests that genetics and environment are both important factors in intelligence
The general figure for heritability in IQ is around 0.5 and the fact it’s not 1 suggests it’s not completely genetics
What is nurture
Environmental influences e.g learning and experience pre- and post natal
Who was Descartes
Early nativist
Who was Locke
Empiricist
What is the empirical method
Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience
What do empiricists such as Locke argue
The mind is a blank slate at birth Upton which learning and experience writes
What levels of the environment did Lerner identify
Defined in narrow prenatal terms duh as the mother physical and psychological state during pregnancy.
Or it may be defined more generally through postnatal experiences such as the social conditions the child grows up in and the cultural and historical context they are apart of
Why is the nature-nurture question impossible to answer
Because environmental influences in a child’s life begin as soon as it is conceived
Example of when it it difficult to tell whether nature or nurture influences a sitstuionc
In twin studies it is difficult to tell whether high concordance rates are a result of shared genetics or shared upbringing
What is concordance rates
A measure of simplistic between two individuals or a set of individuals on a given trait
What is the interactionist approach to attachment
Acknowledges that a range of factors including biological and psychological factors are involved in the development of behaviour
What are psychologists more likely to focus the nature nurture debate in now
What the relative contribution of each influence is in terms of what we think and what we do
Example of how nature creates nurture
Interactionist approach sees the bond beteeen infant and parent as a two way street in which the child’s innate temperament influences how the parent behaves towards the child and the parents responses with in turn affect the child’s behaviour
What is the disthesis-stress model suggest
That mental disorder is caused a biological/genetic vulnerability (the disthesis) which is only expressed when coupled with an environmental trigger (the stressor)
Outline Tienaris study into the diathesis stress model
Studies a group of Finnish adoptees and found that those more likely to develop schizophrenia had biological relatives with a history of the disorder (the diathesis) and had relationships with their adoptive families that were defined as dysfunctional (the trigger)
What is epigenetics
A change in genetic activity without changing the genetic code. Aspects of our lifestyle and the events we encouraged from smoking and diet to pollution and poverty leave epigentic marks on our DNA
What do eoigenetic marks on our DNA do to our bodies
Tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which to use and in turn may go in to influence the genetic code of our children’s etc
How does epigenetics introduce a third element into the nature- nurture debate
It is the life experience of previous generations
Strength of the nature nurture debate
Understanding the interaction may have real world applications. Nativists suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’ in that our genetic makeup determines are characteristics. This extreme stance has led to controversy. Attempts to link ethnicity and race to intelligence. This may lead to sensitive social topics. A more reasonable way to approach the study of human behaviour is to recognise that human behaviour is both nature and nurture
What is constructivism
The view that humans generate knowledge from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas
A strength of the nature nurture debate (gene-enivonrment interactions)
Gene-environment interactions can be elabored by constructivism. People create their own nurture by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nature e.g aggressive children seeking environments around children who show similar behaviours. This environment affects their development. Plomin refers to this as niche-picking and niche-building. This constructivism is evidence that it is impossible and illogical to try and separate nature and nurtures infleunce on children
Limitation of the nature nurture debate
Confounding factors. Research that try to get rid of the infleunce of the environment is complicated by the fact even siblings will not have the same exact upbringing. Plomin suggests that individual differences mean that sibling may experience life event differently for example age may mean that a life event such as parental divorce would have different meaning to each sibling. This would explain the finding that even MZ twins do not show perfect concordance rates.
What is holism
An argument or theory which proposed that it only makes sense to study a whole system rather than its constituent parts
What is the basis of holism in psychology based on
German researchers know as Gestalt psychologists declaring that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
What approach shares a holistic view
Humanistic approach which saw successful therapy as bringing together all aspects of the whole person
What is reductionism
Analysing behaviour by breaking it down into smaller units.
What is the reductionist approach based on
Scientific principle of parsimony - all phenomena should be explained using the most basic, lowest level principles such as the behaviour of an individual cell
What does the notion of levels of explanation suggest
There are different ways of viewing the same phenomena in psychology - some more reductionist than others
Example of OCD being understood in different ways
- socio-cultural context as most people would regard repetitive hsnfwsshing as odd
/ psychological level as the individual experience of obsessive joints
- physical level as a sequence of movements
Physiological level as hypersensitivity of the basal ganglia
Neurochemical level as underproduction or serotonin
What do researchers who favour reductionism see psychology in the hierarchy of science
Ultimately psychology would be replaced by explanations derived from those sciences lower down in the hierarchy
What is the hierarchy of reductionism
Hierarchy of sciences more precise and micro of these disciplines at the bottom like physics with the more herbal and macro at the top like sociology
What is biological reductionism based on
The premise that we are biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes.
What does biological reductionism be explained trough
Neurochemcial
Neurophysiological
Evolutionary and genetic influences
What is neurochemical
Relating to chemicals in
The brain that regulate psychological functioning
What is neurophysiological
Relating to the physiology of the nervous system
What is evolutionary
Changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successful generations
What has the assumption of the biological approach been successfully applied to
The explanation and treatment of mental illness
What is behaviourist approach built on
Environmental reductionism
Why does the behaviourist approach not concern itself with cognitive processes that occur at the psychological level
He mind is regarded as ‘black box’ - irrelevant to our understanding of behaviour
Strength of holism
Can explain key aspects of social behaviours. Some behaviours only emerge within a group context. For example the effects of conformity to social roles and de-individuation of the prisoners in the Stanford prison experiment could not be understood by studying participants individually - it was the interaction between people and the group that was important. Shows that holistic explanations are needed for a more complete understanding of behaviour
Limitation of holism
Impractical. Can’t be rigoursouly tested scientifically and become vague and speculative as they get more complex. If we accept there are lots of factors contributing to depression it becomes difficult to establish which is most influential and which one to use as a basis for therapy. Suggests that when it comes to finding solutions for real world problems lower levels explanations may be more appropriate
Strength of reductionism
Scientific credibility. In order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break behaviour down into constituent parts. Makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations using behavioural categories in a way that is meaningful and reliable. Gives psychology greater credibility placing it on equal terms with the neutral sciences lower down in the reductionist hierarchy.
What is an operationalised variable
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
What is reliability
How consistent the findings are
Limitation of reductionism
Lack of validity. Oversimplifying complex phenomena. Explanations that operate st the level of gene, neurotransmitter or neuron do not include analysis of the social context where the behaviour occurs and this is where the behaviour may derive its meanings. Means reductionist explanstion can only ever form part of an explanation e.g pointing a finger is the same regardless of the context but will not tell us why the finger is point - aggression, pointing to an object etc
What is the idiographic approach
Attempts to describe the nature of the individuals. People are studied as unique with their own subjective experiences, motivators and values. May be no attempt to compare these to a larger group or norm
What methods is the idiographic approach generally associated with
Ones that produce qualitative data such as case studies, unstructured interviews and self report methods.
What is a central sim in the idiographic approach
To describe the richness of human experience and gain insight into the persons unique way of viewing the world
What is an unstructured interview
Interview starts out with general aims and possibly some questions but let’s the interviewee answer guide subsequent questions
What two approaches does the idiographic approach include
Humanistic psychology
Psychodynamic approach
How is humanistic approach a good example of idiographic approach
Rogers and Maslow took a phenomenologcial approach to the study of human beings and were only interested in documenting the conscious experience of the individual rather than producing laws of behaviour
How does the psychodynamic approach use the idiographic approach
Freud’s use of care studies when dealing with the lives of his patients. However he also assumed he had identified universal laws of behaviour and personality developed which is more nomothetic
What is the nomothetic approach
Attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws. Provide benchmark against which people can be compared, classified and measured and likely future behaviour can be predicted and controlled
What methods are used in the nomothetic approach
Methods defined as scientific such as questionnaires and psychological testing. Includes large number of people in order to establish the ways in which people are similar and different from each other
What is psychological testing
A set of questions or tasks that assess some aspect of psychological functioning such as intelligence or personality
When does the nomothetic approach tend to be a feature of approaches
When they are reductionist, determinist and use scientific methods of investigation. When hypotheses are formed, tested under controlled conditions and findings from large numbers of people are analysed for their statistical significance
Which approaches would be nomothetic
Behaviourist approach
Cognitive approach
Biological approach
What is the behaviourist approach
Explaining behaviours in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
What is the cognitive approach
Refers to the process of thinking - knowing, perceiving and believing
What is the biological approach
Any influence on human behaviour that is caused by biological influences that we can’t control
Strength of the idiographic approach
May complement the nomothetic approach. This provides a compete account of an individual and may shed further light on general laws or challenge some laws. A single case may generate hypotheses for further study such as HM who contributed to our understanding they some procedural memories are more resistant to amnesia. Means findings from unique cases may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding of behaviour
Limitation of the idiographic approach
Lack of scientific rigour. One of the critisms of Freud is that many of his key concepts like the Oedipus complex were largely developers from the detailed study of a single case (Little Hans). Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples as there is no adequete baseline with which to compared behaviour. Conclusions tend to reply on the subjective interpretation of the research and such are open to bias
Strength of nomothetic approach
Scientific value of the research. Mirrors those employed within the natural sciences. Include testing under standardised conditions using data sets that provide group averages, statistical analysis, prediction and control. Such processes have enabled psychologists to establish norms of typical behaviour such as the average IQ of 100. Arguably gives the discipline of psychology greater scientific credibility
Limitation of the nomothetic approach
Loss of the whole person.the preoccupation within the approach in herbal laws, prediction and control has been accuseed as losing the whole person within psychology.knowing there is 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia doesn’t tell us about the life of a person with the disorder. This means in its search for general laws the nomothetic approach sometimes overlooks the importance of human experience
When do ethical issues arise
There is a conflict between psychology’s need to gain valid and valuable respect findings whilst at the same time
Preserving the rights and dignity of participants
What is ethical guidelines
Set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly with integrity
What are the wider ethical implications from studies
How research findings are represented in the media, the potential impact of their work on public policy and how their work may affect the perception of particular groups in society
What are ethical implications
Impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people especially participants
What makes research socially sensitive
If they are controversial
What is socially sensitivity
Studies in which there are potential consequences of implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research
What are some socially sensitive research topics
Genetic basis of criminality or aspects of enthinicty or sexuality
What did Aronson say about socially sensitive research
Just because it is sensitive psychologists should not shy away from these. In fact, because of the undoubted importance of research, psychologists have a social responsibility to Carry it out
What are three concerns Sieber and Stanley have identified when conducting socially sensitive research
Implications - some studies may give ‘scientific status’ to prejudice and discrimination
Uses/public policy - what is the research likely to be used for and what would happen if it was used for the wrong purpose. Findings may be adopted by the government for political ends.
The validity of the research - some findings that have been presented as objective in the past have turned out to be highly suspicious and sometimes fraudulent
Who did reeearch on IQ that had consequences for UK school children
Burt
What did Burt study
Influential in establishing the 11+ examination in the UK which was used Tod exude if children had a secondary modern education or went to grammar school. Would have had significant impact on subsequent life changes.
Evidence he provided showed that intelligence was genetic.
However it turned out he made much of the data up and was publicslly discredited. The 11+ and idea that children should be depressed based on natural intelligence remained for years after.
Strength of socially sensitive research
Benefits. Studies of underpresented groups and issues may promote greater sensitivity and understanding of these. This can help reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance. Socially sensitive research has benefited society for example research into the unreliability of eyewitness testimony has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice within the legal system. Suggest that socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society.
Strength of understanding the potential damage of socially sensitive research
Had been used by the government and other institutions to shape social policy despite the sometimes dubious nature of the findings like Burts research. Means that there would be more vigorous checks to make sure rest of research is correct and has less ethical implications
Limitation of socially sensitive research
Costs and benefits may be difficult to produce. We have seen his research that carriers with it possible ethical implications or it is socially sensitive may be subject to scrutiny by an ethical committee - and it is their job to weigh the potential costs against the possible benefits of research. However there is also some social consequences of Resesdch involving vulnerable groups which may be difficult to anticipate. Means the assessment of the worth of respect is subjective and the real impact can only ever exist known once it is public
