Issues And Debates Flashcards
What is gender bias
The idea that psychological theory and respect may not represent the experience and behaviour of men and woman.
Why is bias an inevitable part of the research process
Psychologists are normal people who are influenced by the social and historical context within which they live
What is alpha bias
That which exaggerates or overestimated differences between the sexes. Such differences are usually presented as real and and enduring; fixed and inevitable.
Although these differences may occasional heighten the value of woman, they are more likely to devalue woman
What is an example of alpha bias
Sociobiological theory of relationship formation(Wilson).
‘Survival efficiency’ - a males best interest to I’m pregnant as many females as possible to increase the changes of his genes being passed on. For the female she should preserve her genes but ensuring the survival of her offspring.
Sexually promiscuity in males is naturally selected whereas females who engage in the same behaviour are going against their ‘nature’
What is beta bias
Ignores or minimised or underestimated the differences between men and woman. This occurs when female participants are not included as part of research and it is assumed findings apply equally to both sexes
Example of beta bias
Fight or flight response.
Early research was based exclusively on male animals and assumed universal response to a threatening situation.
However Taylor found that females exhibit a trend and befriend response governed by the hormone oxytocin.
What is a consequence of beta bias
Androcentrism
What is androcentrisim
All male behaviour being seen as ‘normal’ meaning that any behaviour that deviates from this standard is likely to be judged as abnormal. This leads to females being misunderstood etc.
Example of androcentirsm
Many feminists object to the category of Pre-menstral syndrome as it sterotypes and trivialises female experience.
Limitation of gender bias in psychological research
May create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, failing to change stereotypes. Provides scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the work place such as the example of PMS. In any domain in which men set the standard for normal woman are hen made to feel abnormal. Gender bias is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging social affects on woman.
Strength of how gender bias may be avoided
Feminist psychologists have put foreword a number of criteria that should be adhered in order to avoid gender bias. Women should be studied with meaningful resolute contexts and participant in the study rather than being objects of the study. Diversity should be examined and greater emphasis on collaborative research methods. This way of research may be preferable and less gender bias than laboratory based research
Limitation of gender bias (essentialist)
Essentialist arguments are common in gender bias research. Essentialist arguments say that the gender difference is inevitable and fixed in nature. Walkerdine reported how intellectual activity would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth. Essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as facts.
What is an essentialist view
That a difference in behaviour such as gender differences is fixed in nature, inevitable and not the result of social processes
What does universal mean
An underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all despite differences of experience and upbringing
What is cultural bias
Refers to a tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of ones own culture. Likely to occur when researchers studies samples of people from one pariticulsr culture only. If the norm for a aparticular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one culture then any cultural differences will be seen as abnormal
Example of study where the results differ when applied to other cultures other than Western
Classic social influence studies of conformity (Asch) and obedience (Milgram) roriginslky using US participants reveal very different results when replicated in other parts of the world
What is ethnocentrism
The belief in the superiority of ones own cultural group. This may refer to the view that the behaviours that don’t conform to the usually western model are someone deficient or underdeveloped
Notable example of ethnocentrism
Ainsworths Strange Situation. She identified the key defining variable of attachment type as the child’s anxiety on separation. She suggested the ideal attachment type was secure but thus led to misinterpretation in other countries. German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence.
What is cultural relativism
The idea that norms and values as well as ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and culutrual context
What is one way of avoiding cultural bias in research
Recognising cultural relativism - things psychologists discover only make sense in the culture they were discovered
What is etic
Looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and tried to describe those behaviours that are universal
What is emic
Functions from within a certain culture and identifies behaviours specific to that culture
Who drew the distinction between emic and etic approaches
Berry
What is imposed etic
A technique or theory developed in one culture and then used to study the behaviour of people in different cultures with different norms, values, experiences e.g The Strange Sitstuion
What is a strength of cultural bias in research
Often in the past when psychologists made refercne to culture they did so within the context of the individualist vs collectivist distinction. Individualist cultures like the US value freedom whereas collectivist cultures like India place more emphasis on interdependence. However critics say this simplistic definition between cultures no longer applies. Takano found no evidence of traditonal distinctions between cultures when comparing the US and Japan. Suggests that cultural bias in reasearch is less of an issue than it used to be
Strength of the recognition of cultural bias
Berry’s concept of imposed etic is a useful reminder to psychologists of the culturally specific nature of their work. It should not be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative and there is no such thing as universal human behaviour. Some features of human attachment such as imitation and interactional synchrony are universal. Full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of both universality and variations amoung individuals and groups
What is imitation
Copying the behaviour of others
What is an individualist culture
A group of people who value the rights and interests of the individual. Results in a concern for independence and self assertiveness
What is a collectivist culture
A group of people who place more value on the collective rather than each individual being most focused on themselves
What is demand characteristic
Any cue from the researcher or the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the invesgition. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation
Limitation of cultural bias in interpreting variables
Variables under review may not be experienced in the same way by all participants. The behavioural expressions of emotions may give quite difffernt behaviours within an indigenous population then they would in the West. In China, invasion of personal space in normal but in the West it is seen as threatening. Issues like these may affect interactions between researcher and paritpants in cross cultural studies and may reduce the validity
Strength of cross cultural respect in cultural bias
Challenge Western Assumptions. Being able to see that some knowledge and concepts are not shared by people around the world may promote greater sensitivity to individual differnces. Means conclusions drawn are likely to be more valid if they recognise the role of culture in bringing them about
What is free will
The idea that we are self-determining and are able to choose their thoughts and actions
What does the concept of tree will not deny
There may be biological and environmental force that exert some influence on our behaviour but implies we are able to reject these forces
What’s approach advocates free will
Humanistic approach
What is the humanistic approach
Understanding behaviour with emphasis on the importance of subject experience and each persons capacity for self determination
What does determinism propose
Free will had no place in explaining our behaviour though there are hard and soft Verdi d
What is hard determinism
Sometimes referred to as fatalism. Suggests that all human behaviour has a cause and it should be possible to identify and describe these causes
What is soft determinism
Acknowledges that all human action has a cause but soft determinists suggest some room for manoeuvre in that people have conscious mental control over the way they behave
Why did William James think
It was the job of scientists to explain the many determining forced acting upon us but this is does not detract from the freedom we have to make rational conscious choices in everyday sitetions
What is the biological determinism
Control from physiological, genetic and hormonal processes
What are physiological processes
Not under our conscious control succsd the influence of the autonomic nervous system
What do genetic factors may determine
Many behaviours and haracteristics such as mental disorders
How many hormones affect behaviour
For example the role testosterone in agreereize behaviour
What is environmental determinism
The behaviourist idea that we’re determined by conditioning - our behaviour has been shaped by environmental events as well as agents of socialisation like parents
What does skinner famously say about free will
It’s an illusion and argued that all behaviour is the result of conditioning
What is psychic determinism
Freudian idea that we’re directed by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood. Placed importance one the infleunce if biological drives and instincts which underpins psychological responses
According to Freud what is there no such thing as
An accident - even something as random as slip of the tongue is determined by the unconscious
What is one of the basic principles of science
Every event in the universe has a cause and that causes can be explained using general laws
How do psychologists simulate conditions to demonstrate a causal effect
Laboratory experiences remove all extraneous variables
Limitation of hard determinism
Not consistent with the way our legal system operates. Offended are held morally accountable for their actions. Only in extreme circumstances is the Law of Diminished Responsibility is applied such as that of mental illness. If we are not in charge of our actions, we shouldn’t be punished for it.
What is a limitation of determinism as an approach to scientific enquiry
It is not falsifiable. Based on the idea that causes of behaviour will always exist, even though they may not yet be found. As a basic principle this is impossible to disprove. Suggests that determinist approach may not be as scientific as it first appears
Strength of free will
Often make choices in everyday life. Everyday experiences give the impression we are constantly making choice. This gives face validity to the idea of free will I.e it makes sense.
Strength of free will having a positive impact
Even if we don’t use free will the fact that we think we do may have a positive impact on mind and body. Research suggest that people who have an internal locus of control believing they have a high degree of influence on events tend to be more mentally healthy.
What is face validity
Determines whether it appears to measure what it is supported to measure
What does falsification mean
Proving the truth of a research hypothesis by demonstration the null version to be false
