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Psychology ATAR 11 > RESEARCH METHODS > Flashcards

RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards

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1
Q

OVERVIEW (PLANNING RESEARCH)

A
  • Hypothesis
  • Variables
  • Experimental Designs
  • Sampling Techniques
  • Ethical Considerations
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2
Q

HYPOTHESIS

A
  • Prediction

- States/Predicts Findings

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3
Q

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

A
  • Predict what will CHANGE
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4
Q

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

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  • Deliberately manipulated
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5
Q

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

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  • Measured variable
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6
Q

EXTRANEOUS (CONFOUNDING VARIABLE)

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  • Variables that might affect result

- Thus false set of data

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7
Q

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

A
  • Independent Groups Design

- Repeated Measured Design

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8
Q

INDEPENDENT GROUPS DESIGN

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  • Two or more separate groups used
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9
Q

REPEATED MEASURED DESIGN

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  • Test the same group in different conditions
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10
Q

EVALUATION; INDEPENDENT GROUP DESIGN

A
  • CAN be used in cases where a repeated design CAN’T be because the investigation requires SEPARATE GROUPS
  • May not be important differences between individuals to start with
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11
Q

EVALUATION; REPEATED MEASURED DESIGN

A
  • Controls for individual differences between participants (particular variables)
  • Introduces problems for order effects
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12
Q

EVALUATION; SAMPLE TECHNIQUES

A
  • Can’t investigate so choose a sample of them
  • The population in whom they are interested in; TA
  • Aim is too chose a REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE from TA
  • TYPES OF SAMPLING; random, systematic and opportunity
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13
Q

VALIDITY

A

− Accuracy, must evaluate just how accurate findings are

− ECOLOGICAL ACCURACY; setting of your study and task given to participants

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14
Q

EVALUATING FINDINGS

A
  • Validity
  • Reliability
  • Demand Characteristics
  • The Observer Effect
  • Social Desirability
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15
Q

RELIABILITY

A

− Means consistency, must evaluate how easy replication will be on your study to see if you could get similar results
− In an OBSERVATION STUDY, its important to know how reliable your observers were (called inter-vater or inter-observer reliability)

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16
Q

DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS

A

− When a participant works out the aim of the study, and acts accordingly and NOT TO TRUE BELIEFS
− Reduces validity of findings
− Participant is not truthful in answers/behavior

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17
Q

THE OBSERVER EFFECT

A

− When people/animals change their behavior because they know they are being observed
− Reduces validity
− Not acting normally for the purposes of the study

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18
Q

SOCIAL DESIRABILITY

A

− When a participant wants to look good to researchers

− Reduces validity of findings as they aren’t reporting their true prejudices to not look bad

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19
Q

COVERT OBSERATION

A

− Those in which the observer remains hidden at least blends in with the scenery; so does not affect the behavior of those being observed

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20
Q

OBVERT OBSERVATION

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− In which the observer makes themselves known to the people being observed (as would be the case for most participant observations)

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21
Q

CORRELATION STUDIES

A

− Involve taking lots of pairs of scores and seeing if there is a positive/negative relationship (a correlation) between them

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22
Q

VARIABLES

A
  • The events, characteristics, behaviours or conditions that researches measure and study
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23
Q

SUBJECT/PARTICIPAN

A
  • An individual personal a researcher studies
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24
Q

SAMPLE

A
  • A collection of subjects researchers study

- Researchers use samples because they cannot study the entire population

25
Q

POPULATION

A
  • The collection of people from which a researchers draws a sample
  • Researchers study the sample and GENERALISE their results to the population
26
Q

THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

A

− To find ways to measure and describe behaviour
− To understand why, when, and how events occur
− To apply this knowledge to solving real-world problem

27
Q

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

A
  • Psychologists use the scientific method to conduct their research. The scientific method is a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results.
  • Researchers make observations in order to describe and measure behavior. After observing certain events repeatedly, researchers come up with a theory that explains these observations.
  • A theory is an explanation that organizes separate pieces of information in a coherent way. Researchers generally develop a theory only after they have collected a lot of evidence and made sure their research results can be reproduced by others.
28
Q

MAKING RESEARCH SCIENTIFIC (brief)

A
  • Replicable
    − Falsifiable
    − Precise
    − Parsimonious
29
Q

MAKING RESEARCH SCIENTIFIC (detailed)

A
  • Research is replicable when others can repeat it and get the same results.
  • When psychologists report what they have found through their research, they also describe in detail how they made their discoveries.
  • This way, other psychologists can repeat the research to see if they can replicate the findings.
  • After psychologists do their research and make sure it’s replicable, they develop a theory and translate the theory into a precise hypothesis.
  • A hypothesis is a testable prediction of what will happen given a certain set of conditions.
  • Psychologists test a hypothesis by using a specific research method, such as naturalistic observation, a case study, a survey, or an experiment.
  • If the test does not confirm the hypothesis, the psychologist revises or rejects the original theory.
30
Q

A GOOD THEORY

A

− A good theory must do two things: organize many observations in a logical way and allow researchers to come up with clear predictions to check the theory

31
Q

RESEARCH MUST BE FALSIFIABLE

A

− A good theory or hypothesis also must be falsifiable, which means that it must be stated in a way that makes it possible to reject it.
− In other words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis wrong.
− Theories and hypotheses need to be falsifiable because all researchers can succumb to the confirmation bias.
− Researchers who display confirmation bias look for and accept evidence that supports what they want to believe and ignore or reject evidence that refutes their beliefs.

32
Q

RESEARCH MUST BE PRECISE

A

− By stating hypotheses precisely, psychologists ensure that they can replicate their own and others’ research.
− To make hypotheses more precise, psychologists use operational definitions to define the variables they study. Operational definitions state exactly how a variable will be measured.

33
Q

DESCRIPTIVE OR CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

A

− Case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and laboratory observation are examples of descriptive or correlational research methods.
− Using these methods, researchers can describe different events, experiences, or behaviors and look for links between them. However, these methods do not enable researchers to determine causes of behaviour

34
Q

MEASURING CORRELATION

A

− A correlation coefficient measures the strength of the relationship between two variables.
− A correlation coefficient is always a number between –1 and +1. The sign (+ or –) of a correlation coefficient indicates the nature of the relationship between the variables.
− A positive correlation (+) means that as one variable increases, the other does too.
− A negative correlation (–) means that when one variable increases, the other one decreases.
− The higher the correlation coefficient, the stronger the correlation. A +0.9 or a –0.9 indicates a very strong correlation; a +0.1 or a –0.1 indicates a very weak correlation. A correlation of 0 means that no relationship exists between two variables.
- Common correlational research methods include case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and laboratory observation.

35
Q

CASE STUDIES

A

− In depth focus on ALL aspects of a patient or group patient
− STRENGH; can provide information on topics that are unethical or impractical to investigate VIA experiences e.g. suicide, abuse
− WEAKNESSES; uncontrollable form of data connection, psychologists prefer controlled forms of data collection, cannot always help explain why things happen

36
Q

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

A

− Observing behavior of participants within a natural setting
− STRENGTHS; results have real world significance
− WEAKNESSES; ‘The Observer Affect; and ‘Observer Bias’, the observers see what they expect to see, only record certain details, are selective in their recording

37
Q

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

A

− Involves repeated observations of participants OVER A PERIOD OF TIME; several days, months, weeks, years
− Data is collected at the outset of a period, then repeatedly collected at various points in the study
− STRENGTHS; can develop understanding of abilities/trends over time
− WEAKNESSES; require large amount of time, expensive, often only small amount of participants; make it hard to generalize for a wider population, participants can choose to drop out of study or die

38
Q

TWIN STUDIES

A

− Certain characteristics of twins are compared in order to determine differences/similarities e.g. sexual orientation and intelligence
− STRENGTHS; allows psychologists to understand the role that genetics have, the role of environment has upon behavior, develop understanding of abilities/trends over time
− WEAKNESSES; distinction between environmental factors and genetic influences may not be as clear as twin studies assume, cannot generalize results to the rest of the population, has a history of being inhumane and can ONLY describe NOT explain

39
Q

SURVEYS

A

− Public polling techniques are used to get a number of people to answer psychological questions
− STRENGTHS; quick and easy way to collect a great deal of information
− Can measure attitudes, motives and opinions of participants
− WEAKNESSES; ‘The Wording Effect’ – how the questions are worded and ordered can INFLUENCE their answers
− Results of the surveys will not be valid if the survey group isn’t representative of the wider population
− They rely on honestly of the participants and ONLY DESCRIBE but NOT EXPLAIN

40
Q

INTROSPECTION

A

− Self observation
− STRENGTHS; used to gain insight on memory, learning processes and problem solving
− WEAKNESSES; depends on the honesty of participants and participants will have gaps in their knowledge of THEMSELVES

41
Q

LABORATORY OBERSERVATION

A

− As the name implies, researchers perform laboratory observation in a laboratory rather than in a natural setting. In laboratory observation, researchers can use sophisticated equipment to measure and record subjects’ behavior.
− They can use one-way mirrors or hidden recording devices to observe subjects more freely while remaining hidden themselves. Unlike observation in a natural setting, laboratory observation offers researchers some degree of control over the environment

42
Q

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

A

− Researchers use psychological tests to collect information about personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, values, or behaviors.
− Researchers usually standardize these tests, which means they create uniform procedures for giving and scoring them.
− When scoring a test, researchers often compare subjects’ scores to norms, which are established standards of performance on a test.
− A well-constructed standardized test can evaluate subjects better than self-report data.

43
Q

VALIDITY

A
  • Content Validity

- Criterion Validity

44
Q

CONTENT VALIDITY

A

− Is a test’s ability to measure all the important aspects of the characteristic being measured.
− An intelligence test wouldn’t have good content validity if it measured only verbal intelligence, since nonverbal intelligence is an important part of overall intelligence.

45
Q

CRITERION VALIDITY

A
  • Is fulfilled when a test not only measures a trait but also predicts another criterion of that trait.
    − For example, one criterion of scholastic aptitude is academic performance in college. A scholastic aptitude test would have good criterion validity if it could predict college grade point averages.
46
Q

EXPERIMENTS

A

− Unlike correlational research methods or psychological tests, experiments can provide information about cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
− In an experiment, a researcher manipulates or changes a particular variable under controlled conditions while observing resulting changes in another variable or variables.
− The researcher manipulates the independent variable and observes the dependent variable.
− The dependent variable may be affected by changes in the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends (or is thought to depend) on the independent variable.

47
Q

EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP

A

− Typically, a researcher conducting an experiment divides subjects into an experimental group and a control group.
− The subjects in both groups receive the same treatment, with one important difference: the researcher manipulates one part of the treatment in the experimental group but does not manipulate it in the control group.
− The variable that is manipulated is the independent variable.
− The researcher can then compare the experimental group to the control group to find out whether the manipulation of the independent variable affected the dependent variable.
− Often, subjects in the control group receive a placebo drug or treatment, while subjects in the experimental group receive the real drug or treatment.
− This helps researchers to figure out what causes the observed effect: the real drug or treatment, or the subjects’ expectation that they will be affected.

48
Q

DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTS

A

− The main disadvantage of experiments is that they usually don’t fully reflect the real world. In an experiment, researchers try to control variables in order to show clear causal links. However, to exert control in this way, researchers must simplify an event or a situation, which often makes the situation artificial.
− Another disadvantage of experiments is that they can’t be used to study everything. Sometimes researchers can’t control variables enough to use an experiment, or they find that doing an experiment would be unethical—that is, it would be painful or harmful in some way to the subjects being studied.

49
Q

BIAS IN RESEARCH

A

− Bias is the distortion of results by a variable. Common types of bias include sampling bias, subject bias, and experimenter bias

50
Q

SAMPLING BIAS

A

− Sampling bias occurs when the sample studied in an experiment does not correctly represent the population the researcher wants to draw conclusions about

51
Q

SUBJECT BIAS

A

− Research subjects’ expectations can affect and change the subjects’ behavior, resulting in subject bias. Such a bias can manifest itself in two ways:
− A placebo effect is the effect on a subject receiving a fake drug or treatment.
− Placebo effects occur when subjects believe they are getting a real drug or treatment even though they are not.
− A single-blind experiment is an experiment in which the subjects don’t know whether they are receiving a real or fake drug or treatment.
− Single-blind experiments help to reduce placebo effects.
− The social desirability bias is the tendency of some research subjects to describe themselves in socially approved ways.
− It can affect self-report data or information people give about themselves in surveys.

52
Q

EXPERIMENTER BIAS

A

− Experimenter bias occurs when researchers’ preferences or expectations influence the outcome of their research. In these cases, researchers see what they want to see rather than what is actually there.
A method called the double-blind procedure can help experimenters prevent this bias from occurring. In a double-blind procedure, neither the experimenter nor the subject knows which subjects come from the experimental group and which come from the control group

53
Q

NATURALISTIC OBSERSATION EVALUATION

A
  • Method has HIGH ecological validity

- Not always easy for the observations to remain completely inconspicuous and still record results accurately

54
Q

CONTROLLED OBSERVATION EVALUATION

A
  • Because its controlled its possible to treat all participants the same way, thereby makes comparisons and generalise
55
Q

TYPES OF DATA

A
  • Quantitive

- Qualitative

56
Q

QUANTITIVE DATA

A
  • Data that takes the form of NUMBERS
57
Q

QUALITATIVE DATA

A
  • Data that takes the form of words (or not numbers)
58
Q

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

A

− MODE; most common response in a data set
− MEDIAN; the middle number in a data set after you have placed, then in rank order
− MEAN; to calc step 1. add up all the scores, step 2. divide this total by the total number of scores

Psychology ATAR 11 (16 decks)

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