Research Methods Flashcards
What type of relationship do science experiments test?
cause and effect relationship
What is the scientific method/process?
Aims
Hypothesis
method
results
conclusion
What is an experiment?
the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable
What is an aim?
General statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study
a statement which gives the reason or purpose for carrying out an experiment.
What is a hypothesis?
A specific prediction about what you expect to happen in the experiment that is clear and testable
What is a variable?
any factor that can be varied
What is an independent variable?
Variable manipulated by the researcher - the thing that we change is called the
What is a dependent variable?
measurement taken by the researcher - the thing that we measure
What is a directional hyptohesis?
States the direction of the difference or relationship (ONE TAILED)
What is a non directional hypothesis?
Does not state the direction of the difference of relationship (TWO TAILED)
When should you use a directional hypothesis?
If findings of pervious research suggest a particular outcome
When should you use a non - directional hypothesis?
if there is no previous research, or findings from earlier studies are contradictory
What does operationalisation of variables refer to?
to clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
Operationalising variables means…
defining how the variable is going to be measured.
What is the method?
the procedure the researcher follows.
What is the result?
the changes observed during the experiment.
What is the conclusion?
the interpretation of the result.
What are the 7 key features of science?
1) Hypothesis Testing
2) Empirical Evidence
3) Falsifiability
4) Replicability
5) Control
6) Objectivity
7) Theory construction
What is hypothesis testing?
Using the scientific process, researchers collect results, then they interpret the results, to reach a conclusion to test the hypothesis
How do you test the hypothesis?
Using the scientific process.
What happens If hypothesis testing leads to results that don’t support the hypothesis?
researchers need to adjust their hypothesis.
What is empirical evidence?
information that’s collected through direct observation
What is falisifiability?
To test a hypothesis, it must be possible to prove it false.
What is replicability?
Repeating the study, to re-test the hypothesis.
If the results are replicated, this means A replicated study had the same results.
What is control group?
A level of the IV which is not manipulated by the researcher.
What is objectivity?
A researcher must not let
personal bias affect the way they carry out an experiment.
What is theory construction?
A comprehensive explanation that has already been backed up by the scientific method.
What are extraneous variables?
variable not controlled by the researcher but which may affect the dependent variable and cast doubt on the study
What are confounding variables?
variables that actually had an effect on the findings
How is memory operationalised?
measure by number or words recalled
How is social anxiety operationalised?
score on a scale of social anxiety
How is aggression operationalised?
self report aggression questionnaire score
How is language ability operationalised?
score on comprehension test
How is concentration operationalised?
amount of time not focused on work
When does a test have validity?
it measures what it claims to be measuring.
When does a test lack validity?
When a test does not measure what is claims to be measuring
What is reliability in research?
Reliability refers to consistency. If a study is repeated using the same method, design, and measurements, and the same results are obtained, it is considered reliable.
What is the test-retest method?
A test is given to the same participants on two occasions at least a month apart. A high positive correlation (+0.8) between the two results indicates reliability.
What is inter-observer reliability?
It assesses if different observers rate behaviour similarly. The observers agree on operational definitions, independently record observations, and compare results using Spearman’s correlation. A high positive correlation (+0.8) indicates reliability
How can reliability be improved in observations?
Make behaviour coding clear.
Train observers to use the code consistently.
How can reliability be improved in experiments?
Make procedures clear and standardised.
Control experiments to reduce extraneous variables.
Reduce investigator effects and demand characteristics
How can reliability be improved in questionnaires?
Make questions clear and easy to understand.
What is validity in research?
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. For example, an IQ test should accurately assess a person’s IQ.
What is face validity?
It assesses if the test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. Researchers review the test to see if it looks accurate.
What is concurrent validity?
It checks validity by comparing scores on a new test with an established test. A high positive correlation (+0.8) indicates the new test is valid.
What is ecological validity?
It is the extent to which research findings can be generalised to real-life situations.
What is temporal validity?
It assesses whether research findings remain true over time.
How can validity be improved in observations?
Clearly define coding of behaviour.
Train observers to use the code consistently.
How can validity be improved in experiments?
Make procedures clear and standardised.
Control extraneous variables.
Reduce investigator effects and demand characteristics.
How can validity be improved in questionnaires?
Make questions clear and straightforward.
What is internal reliability?
how consistent the individual items on a test or questionnaire are with each other
What are the two ways a study can lack validity?
- that the method of measurement doesn’t measure what it claims to measure.
- that there are extraneous or confounding variables that affect the measurement.
What is external reliability?
How consistent results of the study every time its repeated
What does The Split-half Method test?
internal reliability, by splitting the test items in two and comparing the results.
The test-retest method is…
a method of testing the external reliability of a questionnaire or test
Wa method in which the researcher gets the same participants take the same questionnaire or test on two separate occasions and compares the results obtained both times.
What are the 4 types of extraneous variables?
1) Participant variables
2) Situational variables
3) Investigator effects
4) Demand characteristics
What are participant variables and give an example?
Extraneous variables that are personal characteristics of the participant.
one group may have more participants who usually study with…
How can participant variables be controlled?
Can be controlled by using a repeated measures or matched pairs design or random allocation
What are situational variables?
Extraneous variables that are features of the external environment.
How can situational variables be controlled?
the experimenter must aim for controlled conditions during, all testing - standardisation
Using an independent measure design can reduce situational variables
What are investigator effects?
when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting
How can investigator effects be controlled?
use a single or double blind technique - or use standardisation
What are demand characteristics?
cues in an experimental situation that may affect participant behaviour, the participant will try to work out whats going on and guess the aim
Situational variables that act as hints that enable participants to guess the aim of study.
How can we control demand characteristics?
Use an independent measure design to reduce participants knowledge of the aim
When are there investigator effects in a study?
The researcher influences the behaviour of the participants, and therefore the results of the study.
What is an example of investigator effects?
the experimenter treats one group differently to the other by being more encouraging to one group by smiling more or using leading questions
What is an example of situational variables?
one group in a cold room and the other in a warm room, which may influence results
What will participants do that display demand characteristics?
look for cues of how to behave or look to please the experimenter
What do uncontrolled extraneous variables do to a study?
reduce both the validity and the reliability
What is one way to control extraneous variables?
through standardisation, when researchers make an extraneous variable the same for all participants, so that validity and reliability increase.
What extraneous variables can be standardised?
investigator and situational
What is standardisation?
When researchers make an extraneous variable the same for all participants
What is a single blind procedure?
If only the participants are blind to experimental group
What is a double blind procedure?
If the researcher and the participants are blind to experimental group
What is random allocation in experimental design?
Participants are assigned at random to different groups in order to ensure similar participants in each group - each participant has an equal chance of being placed in either group of an experiment (e.g., independent measures design).
How can random allocation be done?
By assigning a number to each participant and using a computer to randomly select participants for groups. Alternatively, names can be drawn from a hat.
What is counterbalancing in experimental design?
It’s a method used in repeated measures designs to reduce order effects by having half the participants start with one condition and the other half start with the other condition.
Give an example of how counterbalancing works in a word recall experiment.
10 participants do noise first, then silence. The other 10 do silence first, then noise. This balances order effects across conditions.
What are order effects?
When participants’ performance changes in the second condition due to practice, fatigue, or boredom, rather than the experimental manipulation.
What is randomisation?
Randomisation reduces experimenter effects by ensuring the order of conditions or stimuli (e.g., word lists) is generated randomly, not by the experimenter.
How can randomisation be applied in experiments with multiple conditions?
If participants do all conditions, the order should be varied randomly
What is standardisation in experimental design?
It ensures all participants experience the same environment, information, and procedures to keep the investigation fair and consistent.
What are examples of standardisation methods?
Standardised instructions (same wording), procedures (same room, temperature, and people), and timings (same time of day).
What does being blind to an experiment mean?
They don’t know which experimental group they’re in. There is less chance participants will respond to demand characteristics because they are less able to guess what the researcher is investigating.
What is validity?
When a study measures what it claims to measure.
What are the 4 types of external validity?
1) ecological validity
2) temporal validity
3) Population/face validity
4) concurrent validity
The more a sample looks like the original population, the more
representative we say it is.
What is sampling?
When researchers pick a sample from a population.
What is a target population?
The total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn
What are the 5 types of sampling?
Volunteer, Opportunity, Systematic, Random, Stratified.
What is a sample?
this is the small group of people gathered together to take part in the experiment
What is volunteer sampling?
when a researcher posts an advert and people volunteer to be participants in the study.
Involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample
What is a strength of volunteer sampling?
It is easy, and can reach lots of people, and less time consuming because the participants go to the researcher
What is a limitation of volunteer sampling?
Volunteer bias may occur, asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person, therefore the sample is not representative of the population
What is opportunity sampling?
Opportunity sampling is a method where a researcher takes a sample from the population based on availability and willingness, approaching members who are convenient and accessible to participate.
What is a strength of opportunity sampling?
Quick and efficient because you use people who happen to be there
What are 2 limitations of opportunity sampling?
1) may be biased, if you stand in the centre of town on a Monday at 11am you may only get people who don’t work
2) Open to researcher bias’ people may be picked by the researcher choosing who they know or like the look of
what is systematic sampling?
when researchers mathematically pick every
nth person from the entire target population
What are 2 strengths of systematic sampling?
- avoids bias a researcher has no control over choice
- more chance of a representative sample
What is a limitation of systematic sampling?
if there is a pattern in how the data is listed, the sample may not be representative of the population.
What is random sampling?
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being chosen. Picking randomly from a list of the entire population, so that everyone has an equal chance of being a participant
What are 2 strengths of random sampling?
- there is no researcher bias in the selection - everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being picked. The researcher cant choose people who they think will support the hypothesis.
- representative because every member of the population has an equal chance of being included.
What are 2 limitations of random sampling?
- it has to be a large sample to guarantee - if not large, sub-groups in the population may e left out by chance
- people who are picked may not be available to be used, therefore
What is stratified sampling?
Sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups within the target population - split the target population into groups such as ages, and then select randomly from each strata in proportions
What are 2 strengths of stratified sampling?
- more likely to get a representative sample as all groups are included
- voids researcher bias because the participants are selected randomly from each strata
What is a limitation of stratified sampling?
- stratification is not always perfect the identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different
What is the sample presumed to be?
Representative of the target population and therefore we can generalise the findings of the target population
What is an easier definition of stratified sampling?
sample so that their sample has the same proportion of each subgroup as the total population.
What are the 5 main psychological issues and BPS guidelines?
1) informed consent
2) deception
3) protection from harm
4) right to withdraw
5) privacy and confidentiality
What is the role of the British Psychological Society code of ethics?
For researchers to observes these guidelines when conducting research in attempt to ensure that all participant’s are treated with respect and consideration
What is informed consent according to BPS guidelines?
Before the study, participants must be informed about the study’s aim, procedure, their right to withdraw, and how their data will be used. Participants can then make an informed decision about participating.
Participants must fully understand the study details.
Written consent is required.
How is the issue, informed consent dealt with?
A consent form outlining all relevant details of the investigation is given to participants to read and sign before the study. If participants are under 16 their parents must sign.
What is deception according to BPS?
deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the study
Participants who have not received adequate information when they agreed ti take part cannot be said to have given informed consent
When is deception justified?
It would be acceptable to not tell participants the aim if it will lead to demand characteristics
How is the issue, deception dealt with?
All information is detailed in the consent form and there are no changes in the procedure once the consent form has been signed.
The participants should be given a full debrief after the study. Within this they should be told the full aims of the study and any other details they were not told at the start, e.g. the existence of a control group.
What is protection from harm according to the BPS guidelines?
Participants must leave in the same physical and mental state as arrival. Particiapnts should not be out at risk and there should be no physical or psychological damage. They should not be made to feel embarrassed, inadequate or placed under undue stress. researchers must make sure the participants are in no more physical and emotional harm than they would be in normal life.
How is the issue, protection from harm dealt with?
Informed consent, confidentiality and debrief are needed and the participant must be allowed to withhold data if they wish.
Participants may have natural concerns and they should be reassured that their behaviour was normal. Counselling should be provided if necessary.
What is right to withdraw according to BPS?
Participants have the right to stop the study at any point and the researcher must tell them they have this right.
How is the issue, right to withdraw dealt with?
Researchers should allow participants to leave the study at any time
What is privacy and confidentiality according to BPS?
Confidentiality: Participants have a legal right to have their personal data protected.
Privacy: The location of the study should be kept private, and institutions should not be named.
Researchers must ensure participants remain anonymous.
How is the issue, privacy and confidentiality dealt with?
Psychologists can refer to participants as a number in the writing up of a piece of research.
Individual names or information should not be included in the report. Sometimes in case studies the individual is known by initials, e.g. HM.
During the briefing/debriefing participants are reminded that their data is protected
What is a experiment?
A study that investigates cause and effect, by comparing the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable
What are the 3 experimental designs?
1) Independent group design
2) Repeated measures design
3) Matched pairs design
What are the 4 types of experiment?
1) Lab experiment
2) Field experiment
3) Natural experiment
4) Quasi experiment
What is a lab experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables
What are 2 strengths of lab experiements?
1) The manipulating of the IV to observe the effects on the DV means we can establish cause and effect
2) High internal validity, well controlled conditions minimise extraneous variables
What is a weaknesses of lab experiments?
1) Artificial contrived situation which lacks realism and participants may respond to experimenters cues, therefore the study doesn’t generalise to how they would behave in their normal life, meaning the experiment has Low ecological validity.
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
What are 2 strengths of field experiments?
1) More natural environment and less awareness of being studied thus higher ecological validity, behaviour is natural
2) The IV is still manipulated therefore cause and effect can be established
What is a weaknesses of field experiments?
1) Less control of extraneous variables affecting participant behaviours, you cannot be sure what changes in the DV are du to changes in the IV - low valditiy
What is a natural experiment?
The independent variable (IV) changes naturally without researcher intervention.
The researcher records the effect on the dependent variable (DV).
Used when manipulating the IV would be impractical or unethical.
The IV is an event that has already occurred and cannot be randomly allocated.
What are 2 strengths of natural experiments and quasi experiments?
1) It enables researchers to study independent variables that it would be unethical or impractical to investigate in a laboratory or field experiment.
2) It allows us to test variables ethically, because it would not be possible to test some variables in an experiment
What are 2 weaknesses of natural experiments and quasi experiments?
1) Lack of control over extraneous variables, which reduces thew internal validity of the experiment, difficult to establish cause and effect as you cannot demonstrate that one variable causes another as the IV is not directly manipulated
2) Ppts may be aware of being studied therefore it reduces natural behaviour, because they are more aware of which group they are in
What is a quasi experiment?
A study that us almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone - the variables simply exist
What is an independent group design?
using different participants in each condition
What are 2 strengths of independent group designs?
1) No order effects such as practice, fatigue or boredom as they only do one condition
2) less demand characteristics as ppts are less likely to guess the aim
What are 2 limitations of independent group designs?
1) Individual difference can be an issue as all people with x characteristic may end up in the same group
2) More participants required to get the same amount of data
What is a repeated measures design?
Using the same participants in each condition of the experiment
What are 2 strengths of repeated measures designs?
1) Individual difference are not an issue as both participants do the same conditions
2) Fewer ppts required because they can use the same for both conditions
What are 2 limitations of repeated measures designs?
- Order effects such as practice, boredom and fatigue can be an issue
2) Demand characteristic can be a problem and can guess the aim of the study reducing the validity
What is a matched pairs design?
Using different participants in each condition but participants are matched on an important characteristic that may affect performance
What are 2 strengths of matched pairs designs?
- A strength of the design is that the researchers can establish a clearer cause and effect relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
- A strength of the design is that the researcher can control for some participant variables which increases the internal validity of the study.
What are 2 limitations of matched pairs designs?
- A limitation of the design is that researchers can’t match participants on every possible participant variable.
- A limitation of the design is that matching participants is time-consuming.
How can we use counter balancing in a repeated measure design?
When in a repeated measures design, different participants are made to take part in the experimental conditions in different orders
What can order effects do?
1) participants become better at a task due to practice
2) Participants become less good at a task due to boredom
What is counterbalancing?
A way of preventing order effects from influencing results
What are the 3 types non-experimental methods?
1) Single variable studies
2) Correlational studies
2) Case studies
What are single variable studies?
measuring a single variable, not cause and effect relationship
What is a correlational study?
two variables share an association. - As one quantity gets bigger, the other also gets bigger, As one quantity gets smaller, the other also gets smaller.
What is a positive correlation?
when a variable gets bigger, the other gets bigger.
What is a negative correlation?
when a variable gets bigger, the other gets smaller.
Does correlation mean causation?
No, because two variables can be correlated without having a causal relationship.
What are some pros of correlational studies?
- They are often cheaper and more practical to conduct than experiments.
- They are less likely to be unethical than experiments.
What is a case study?
Focus on one individual, group or organisation and study in depth
When are case studies used?
often used to study behaviour or unusual situations
What are 2 strengths of case studies?
- high validity
- allow researchers to study events that they could not practically or ethically manipulate
What are 2 limitations of case studies?
- Difficult to generalise from a case study as each person is unique
- difficult to establish cause and effect as situation not controlled
What are the 2 types of methods of data collection?
Self report and observation
What is the self report technique?
When participants are asked to provide information about their own thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
What are the two types of self report technqiues?
1) Questionnaires
2) Interview
What are self report questionnaires?
Participants write down their response, respondents record their own answers
What are open questions?
- Does not have a fixed range of answers and the participant is free to answer in any way they wish
What are closed questions?
- provides a fixed number or responses
What is a strength of open questions?
Qualitative data, allows for elaboration and may find out what the participant thinks and feels
What is a limitation of open questions?
Difficult to analyse as data is qualitative
What is a strength of close questions?
Quantitive data is easy to analyse
What is a limitation of close questions?
May not be able to express precise feelings so lacks depth and detail, may not uncover new insights
What are the strengths of questionnaires?
- Large numbers of questionnaires can be administered at once so cost efficient and less time consuming
- easier to reach a wide range of people if methods such as internet surveys are used
- can be easy to analyse
What are structured interviews?
Predetermined questions asked by psychologists in a fixed order, questions have been decided before the interview
What are limitations of structured interviews?
Not possible to elaborate points or deviate from a topic
What are strengths of structured interviews?
Easier to compare answers and identify patterns in responses
Easier to replicate
What are unstructured interviews?
predetermines topic areas giving a chance for participants to elaborate. They tend to be directed by the participant following a general topic
What is a strength of unstructured interview?
Allows interviewees to go into more depth and gain an insight into behaviour
What is a limitation of unstructured interview?
more difficult to analyse the answers
What are semi-structured interviews?
falls between the two, a list of questions to follow and then a chance for the participant to talk on a particular topic
What are the strengths of interviews?
- can access peoples thoughts and feelings by asking questions
- body language of participants can indicate how they are feeling
What are the limitations of interviews?
- participant responses may be influence by researchers and they may feel pressured to give socially desirable responses
- People aren’t always accurate or objective when they provide information about how they feel, think and behave.
What should researchers do when designing interviews?
- Questions should be standardised
- one participant at a time
- confidentiality assured
- avoid double barrelled questions
What are observations?
when researchers observe participants, and measure or record their behaviour.
What is a naturalistic observation?
Observe people in their natural environment,
What is a strength of naturalistic observation?
High level of ecological validity as they are doing their usual activities, there easier to generalise
What is a limitation of naturalistic observation?
Many uncontrolled extraneous variables so difficult to draw conclusions. Difficult to replicate
What is a controlled/lab observation?
Observations take place in a controlled environment.
The researcher standardises the procedure and selects participants.
What is a strength of controlled/lab observation?
Researchers control extraneous variables.
- High control so easier to see a cause and effect, also easy to replicate
What is a limitation of controlled/lab observation?
Lacks ecological validity
What are the two types of observation?
1) controlled
2) Naturalistic
What are the two types of awareness participants can have during an observation?
covert and over
What is the covert method?
Researcher observes participants that don’t know that they’re being watched for a research study.
What is a strength of the covert observation?
Participants will behave as they normally do so higher validity, participants are less likely to display social desirability bias or be influenced by investigator effects.
What is a limitation of the covert observation?
Ethical issues - consent should be gained for observations that are not in a public place
What is an overt observation?
researcher presence is obvious and participants know that they’re being watched for a research study.
A(n)
What is a strength of over observations?
More ethically sound and they may withdraw from the observation
What is a limitation of over observations?
observer effect - people behave differently if being observed
What roles can researchers have in an observation?
1) Participant observation
2) Non-participant observation
What is a participant observation?
Research joins in with the group and participates in the actives whilst observing and recording the data
What is a strength of participant observation?
the researcher may gain more insight and understanding into the behaviour of the participants by taking part in the activities, increasing the validity
What is a limitation of participant observation?
Researcher may become too involved and lose objectivity
What is a non-partcipiant observation?
researcher doesn’t take part in the activity that the participants are doing, researcher is not directly involved with what is being observed - behaviour is recorded from a distance
What is a strength of non-partcipiant observation?
Observer remains more objective
What is a limitation of non-partcipiant observation?
May not have a true understanding of behaviour as they are too removed from the situation
What are the 3 steps of the observational method?
1) Type of observation
2) Awareness of participants
3) Role of the researcher
What is a strength of unstructured observation?
rich and detailed going into depth
What is a limitation of unstructured observation?
difficult to analyse largely qualitative data - risk of observer bias
What is an unstructured observation?
Researcher writes down everything they see
What is a structured observation?
researcher uses a predetermined list of behaviours and records when these behaviours occur
What is a strength of structured observation?
Easier to record and analyse, quantitative data
What is a limitation of structured observation?
Less depth and detail, may not give a deep insight into behaviour
What are behavioural categories?
when researchers break down the behaviour they want to measure into smaller behaviours we say that they are using behavioural categories. Behavioural categories help researchers operationalise their dependent variable.
What are the two types of sampling procedures used to record data for observations?
Event sampling and time sampling
What is event sampling?
When researchers focus on one or more specific target behaviours, and counts up the event every time those behaviours occur
What is a strength of event sampling?
Useful if the target behaviour doesn’t occur often as it may be missed using time sampling
What is a limitation of event sampling?
If the event is complex the observer may overlook details
What is time sampling?
when researchers categorise behaviours at regular intervals, like every 30 seconds.
A target or individual group is established and the research records their behaviour in a fixed time frame such as every 30 seconds
What is a strength of time sampling?
Can give a bigger picture of the whole behaviour pattern by showing variations across the day
What is a limitation of time sampling?
the behaviour recorded during the periods of time may not be representative of behaviour overall
What does inter-rater reliability do?
Inter-rater reliability assesses the external reliability of observations in an observational study
What is inter-rater reliability?
A measure of how similar the data collected by different observes are
What is a pilot study?
Small, trial versions of proposed studies before the full investigation takes place, A test used to identify potential flaws in an experiment.
Why is a pilot study conducted?
To allow the research to test the materials in the study
What can conducting a pilot study highlight?
Any problems in the materials or procedure which allows the researcher to modify the design before the full version
How is a pilot study done?
Will look at a smaller sample of people and perhaps a sample of the questions
What is the value of a pilot study?
Research has more chance of being high in validity, to check it is actually measuring what it set out to measure
May save the researcher from wasting time and money
Why don’t researchers not analyse results from a pilot study?
- The design of the main study might change.
- The small sample size means the results are less reliable.
What is peer review?
Peer review is used to decide whether to publish reports.
The person conducting the peer review will review the report and suggest improvements.
What is the process of peer review?
1) Before research is published the written work is reviews by 2 or 3 experts who decide whether it will be published
2) Work is considered in terms of validity, significance and originality
3) Reviewers can accept the manuscript as it is, accept with revisions, suggest the author makes revision and re-submits or reject without the possibility of re-submission
What are the 3 aims of peer review?
1) to validate the quality and relevance of research
2) Allocate research funding
3) To suggest amendments or improvements
What are 2 benefits of peer review?
- It helps researchers to constantly improve their research.
- It protects society from bad research.
What are 2 limitations of peer review?
1) Anonymity - display personal bias
2) The reviewers might not always be objective
What are the two types of data?
Qualitative and quantitative
What is Qualitative data?
Data expressed in descriptions or words rather than numbers, focusing on participants’ feelings and thoughts about experiences. Typically collected through methods like unstructured interviews, case studies, open-ended questionnaires, and observations.
What is Quantitative data?
Data expressed in numbers, measuring ‘how much’ or ‘how many.’ It is typically collected through experiments, closed questionnaires, structured observations, and correlational studies.
What are two strengths of qualitative data?
- Data is rich and detailed therefore gives more insight into a subject.
- Has more validity because describing behaviour rather than scoring it is what happens in real life.
What are two limitations of qualitative data?
- Data difficult to summarise.
- Data may be very subjective.
What are two strengths of quantitative data?
- Data is easier to summarise into graphs or statistics.
- Objectivity may be increased as scoring systems are less open to interpretation.
What are two limitations of quantitative data?
- Data lacks detail and depth
- Data could be lower in validity because it is unlike real life behaviour.
What is nominal data?
data that exists in categories with no natural order
What is ordinal data?
data that exists in categories with a natural order
What is ratio data?
Data that takes on number values, from which we can tell exactly how much bigger one value is than another.
What is discrete data?
Discrete data is quantitative data that’s restricted to just certain numbers.
What is continuous data?
Continuous data is quantitative data that’s not restricted to certain numbers.
What type of data is ordinal data always?
discrete data
What type of data is nominal data always?
discrete
On a frequency graph what data does the X axis display?
Continuous data
On a frequency graph what data does the Y axis display?
Frequency count
What is normal distribution?
A symmetrical bell-shaped curve where most values cluster around the middle, with fewer cases at the extremes. Variables like IQ, reaction time, and memory test scores often follow this pattern.
How are normal distributions used by psychologists?
Psychologists use normal distributions to determine if a person’s traits or abilities fall within the typical range. For example, an educational psychologist might assess a child’s IQ to understand school-related challenges, such as boredom due to high intelligence.
What are some features of a normal distribution?
- It is a bell shaped curve.
- It is symmetrical around the mean
- The measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) will all be at a similar point on the graph
What are skewed distributions?
Distributions where data is not symmetrically spread.
What is a positive skew distribution?
long tail on the positive side and most scores are on the left
What is a negative skew distribution?
long tail on the negative side and most scores on the right
What are histograms?
Graphs that represent frequency counts for continuous data that has been grouped into categories
What are histograms used for?
Continuous data that have been grouped into categories
In a histogram, the groups are represented through bars that must be?
Joined together
What is nominal and ordinal data displayed on?
A bar chart
What is interval and ratio data displayed on?
Bar chart or histogram accordingly.
What type of data do bar charts display?
discrete data
What is dispersion?
tells us how spread out the distribution is.
What is the central tendency?
a number that tell us where the middle of the distribution is.
What are the 3 measures of central tendency?
Mean, mode, median
What is the mean?
What are 2 advantages of using the mean as the measure of central tendency?
- Uses the value of all the scores which makes it the most sensitive measure.
- Using the value of all the scores means it is more representative of the data as a whole.
What is the mode?
The most frequently occurring value, the most common score
What are 2 limitations of using the mean as the measure of central tendency?
- Is distorted by extreme scores.
- Sometimes it is not an actual score (E.g. 2.4 children in a family).
What are 2 advantages of using the mode as the measure of central tendency?
- It is not affected by extreme scores.
- It is always an actual score.
What are 2 limitations of using the mode as the measure of central tendency?
Does not use all the scores and therefore is less sensitive than the mean.
2. Does not use the value of the scores and therefore is less sensitive than the mean.
What is the median?
The middle score when the scores are arranged in numerical order. If it is an odd number then the median is halfway between the 2 middle scores
What are 2 advantages of using the median as the measure of central tendency?
- It uses all the scores which means it is more representative of the data as a whole.
- It is not affected by extreme scores.
What are 2 limitations of using the median as the measure of central tendency?
- It is not an actual score some of the time.
- Does not use the value of the scores and therefore is less sensitive than the mean.
What are the 2 measures of dispersion?
Range and standard deviation
What is the range?
The range shows the spread of the scores
What is an advantage of using the range as the measure of dispersion?
Easy to calculate
What is a limitation of using the range as the measure of dispersion?
It only takes into account the extreme highest and lowest numbers.
How does the range work?
The bigger the range, the more spread out the data are. The smaller the range, the less spread out the data are.
How is the range calculated?
by taking the lowest value from the highest value
How can you find the centre of a distribution?
using measures of central tendency
How do you calculate the mean?
Add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores
What data is the mean suitable for?
interval data
What data is the median suitable for?
ordinal data
How do you calculate the median?
We always need to rearrange the numbers in order from lowest to highest.
What is standard deviation?
A measure of how spread the data points are from the mean, it shows how far the scores deviate from the mean
The larger the standard deviation the…
more spread the scores are from the mean
The smaller the standard deviation the…
the more clustered the scores are from the mean
What is an advantage of standard deviation?
more precise measure of dispersion because it includes all of the scores in the calculation
What is a limitation of standard deviation?
it can also be distorted by an extreme value
What does standard deviation measure?
The distance, on average, of data from the mean.
What are two ways to analysis qualitative data?
1) Thematic analysis
2) Content analysis
What are themes of qualitative data?
ideas that appear consistently in a set of data
What is the process of thematic analysis?
The data used in thematic analysis must be in written form. Researchers first familiarise themselves with the data, then use codes to label it. They interpret the data to identify common themes.
What is thematic analysis a method of analysing?
Qualitative data/research
What are the 6 processes of thematic analysis?
1) familiarises themselves with the data.
2) Coding, labels the data using codes.
3) categorises the codes into themes.
4) Reviewing themes
5) Defining and naming themes
6) writes a report interpreting their themes.
What is content analysis?
A technique for analysis qualitative data, involves coding units to categorise analysed material and turning qualitative data into quantitative data.
What can the data be in content analsyis?
Qualitative = analysed in themes
Quantitative = categorised and counted
What are 2 strengths of content analysis?
- Allows researchers to study people they would have no or little access to therefore few ethical issues as little contact with participants
- Alls to test hypothesise and draw clearer conclusions from her data.
What are 2 limitations of content analysis?
- open to misinterpretation as there is no direct contact with people
- particularly subjective because it is based on opinion
What is a strength of thematic analysis?
- It provides a more detailed understanding about participants’ experiences.
What is a limitation of thematic analysis?
- thematic analysis lack external reliability as Different researchers may find different themes in the same data.
How do you Calculate probability of observing differences in samples in there is no difference between populations?
Using a t-test
What is the null hypothesis?
the hypothesis that there is no difference between the experimental groups.
What does the t-value do?
Helps find probability of observing results if null hypothesis is correct
What happens if the t value gets bigger?
the probability gets smaller
What happens if the t value gets smaller?
the probability gets bigger
As the t-value gets bigger, is the null hypothesis more or less likely to be correct?
less
What are 3 factors that affect the t-value?
1) Difference between means
2) Dispersion of data
3) Size of the samples
What is a p value?
The probability of observing our results, if the null hypothesis is correct. - Each t-value gives us a probability, called a p-value.
What is it called when researchers decide that their null hypothesis is correct?
They have accepted the null hypothesis.
What is it called when researchers decide that their null hypothesis is incorrect?
They have rejected the null hypothesis.
What is the purpose of a significance level?
To check for significant differences or relationships in scientific research
What is the most common significance level to use in psychology?
0.05 = 5%
What is a significance level?
the level at which the researcher chooses to accept the research hypothesis of not
What is the name of the value at which a researcher switches from accepting the null hypothesis, to rejecting it?
Significance level
Why is 0.05 the significance chosen in psychology?
5% is seen as a sensible and suitable level of significance in psychology because it is neither too strict nor too lenient
What happens if a psychologist accepts the hypothesis with a level 0.05 significance?
I means there is a 5% or less probability that the results occurred by chance, and the IV did in fact have an effect on the DV
What is a type 1 error?
When the researcher rejects the null hypothesis and accepts the experimental hypothesis, when the the effect found is due to chance
incorrectly reject the null hypothesis, and say there is a real difference between two experimental groups when there isn’t one.
What is a type 2 error?
When the researcher accepts the null hypothesis and rejects the experimental hypothesis, when there is a real effect but it hasn’t been detected
fail to reject the null hypothesis, and say there isn’t a difference between the two experimental groups, when there actually is.
As the significance level gets smaller, how likely is the researcher to make a type 1 error?
less likely
What are critical t-values?
When do you reject the null hypothesis?
if the t-value was bigger than, or equal to, the critical t-value for our significance level.
What is an alternative hypothesis?
hypothesis that states a change
What is the degrees of freedom?
The total sample size across the two groups subtract 2
What are the 6 sections of a report?
1) The Abstract
2) The introduction
3) The Method
4) The Results
5) The Discussion
6) The References
What is the abstract in a report?
A short summary where researchers summarise the aims, method, results and conclusions
What is the introduction in a report?
The part that explains why the study was conducted, background theory, controversies and previous research. It explains the aim and hypothesis of their research.
What is the method in a report?
The exact procedure used in the researchers followed in their study, including the type of study, how the variables were measured. The techniques used, target population, sampling method, sample, allocation of participants, material… The procedure used, in enough detail that the study can be replicated.
What is the results in a report?
A description of the results using measures of central tendency and dispersion A presentation of the data using graphs and charts. A description of how the data was analysed reasons for choice of test and results of test with critical value
What is the discussion in a report?
A statement on whether the results supported the hypothesis. An interpretation of the results.
D A statement on whether the results have replicated other results from past studies.
What is in the references of the report?
A list of the other studies they mentioned in the report.
What is the correct order to reference a report?
Surname, Initial, YEAR, title, location published, name of publisher
What is primary data?
Data collected directly by researchers for the study they are currently undertaking.
What is a strength of primary data?
- Authentic data obtained from the participants themselves, the questionnaires and observations can be designed in such a way that they specifically target the information that the researcher requires
What is a weakness of primary data?
- Requires a large amount of planning
- time consuming
What is secondary data?
Data that’s already available and that wasn’t collected by the researcher for their current study.
What is a strength of secondary data?
- It is inexpensive
- easily accessible
What is a weakness of secondary data?
- It’s not always in the most suitable format to test a hypothesis.
- Substantial variation in the quality and accuracy of secondary data, may be outdated or incomplete
What is meta-analysis?
A process in which a large number os studies, which have involved the same research question and methods of research are reviewed together and the combined data is tested by statistical techniques. It uses secondary data. It combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic.
What is a strength of a meta-analysis?
One strength of a meta-analysis is that it usually has high validity. Researchers must compare studies with the same research methods, that are valid and that are well designed.
What does a correlation measure?
the extent to which two variables are related to each other
What graphs display correlational data?
Scattergram
What is the number range of correlation coefficients?
-1 ——- 1
Coefficients are calculated using what test?
Spearmans rho and pearsons r
What happens to the probability of observing results under the null hypothesis as the negative correlation increases?
The bigger the negative correlation, the smaller the probability of observing the results if the null hypothesis is correct.
What test should be used to investigate correlational studies where at least one variable is ordinal?
Spearmans rho
What is nominal data?
the values represent distinct categories with no inherent order or ranking.
What statistical test is used when our data is nominal and our experimental design is an independant groups design?
chi-squared test
When do we reject the null hypothesis?
We reject the null hypothesis if our observed value is bigger or equal to the critical value.
What does the sign test measure?
the difference in participants’ before and after scores.
In a sign test, if the participant’s score goes up, what do we give them?
We give them a +.
In a sign test, if the participant’s score goes down, what do we give them?
We give them a -.
