Approaches Flashcards
What did Wundt establish?
The first psychological laboratory experiment at Uni and dedicated a room to psychology
What is Wundt known as?
The father of psychology
What do Wundt do?
He moved psychology from philosophical roots to controlled research and established controlled conditions in the lab such as standardised procedures
What did Wundt prompt the use of?
introspection
What was introspection?
A way of studying mental processes, is a systematic analysis of our own conscious experience of a stimulus e.g. metronome
Ppts examine and describe their own mental processes
What did Wundts work pave the way for?
Later controlled research and the study of mental processes
How did structuralism link to Wundt?
Wundt aimed to break down thoughts to analyse them
Wundt believed that he could
apply reductionism to studying the mind or human mind .
When Wundt believed that he could apply reductionism to the human mind, he meant that …
it could be explained in terms of its simpler parts.
What is the 1st discussion point for Wundt?
The validity introspection, many aspects of our mind outside of our conscious awareness however it is still sometimes use modern scientific psychological research
What is the 2nd discussion point for Wundt?
Wundt’s research is that his results were not consistent, and so his studies lack reliability. He did not get consistent results. The reliability of once introspective methods were questioned as they were not reliably reproduced therefore it is difficult due to the subjectivity
What is the strength of Wundts work?
He was the first to apply the scientific method to psychology, for instance making his studies replicable, he controlled all his extraneous variables and wrote down his method.
Wundt got people to focus on…
An everyday object and describe their sensations and thoughts
By observing the participant’s responses, Wundt would not be using introspection because …
the participants aren’t describing their own mental processes.
What was the main criticism of introspection by the early 1900s?
It was criticized for being subjective, based on personal opinions, and varying from person to person.
Who were the key figures in the development of behaviorism in psychology?
John Watson and B.F. Skinner were key figures in behaviorism.
What did John Watson believe about studying mental processes?
Watson believed that studying ‘private’ mental processes was not scientific and that psychology should focus only on observable and measurable external behavior.
What type of experiments did behaviorists like Watson and Skinner conduct?
They set up controlled lab experiments to study behavior scientifically, often using animals and humans.
What was the primary focus of behaviorists like Watson and Skinner?
They focused on studying external behavior and developing laws of learning that could be applied to any individual.
When did cognitive psychology emerge, and what did it focus on?
Cognitive psychology emerged in the 1960s and focused on studying mental processes such as memory and language.
How do present-day psychologists study biological and cognitive processes?
They use precise measurement techniques like MRI scanning to study biological processes and their link to cognitive processes.
Why did behaviourism develop?
As a reaction to the introspective methods developed by Wundt and Freud.
What did behaviourist want to adopt?
An objective approach based on observable behaviour
How did Behaviourists describe psychology?
According to behaviourists, experimental psychology should be based on…
empirical evidence
What are three assumptions from the behaviourists approach?
- Only observable behaviour should be focused on, and the the mind should not be studied as it is not scientifically observable
- Behaviour is learnt from the environment
- Behaviour is determined by reinforcement and punishment of past learning experiences
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is learning by association, where two stimuli are repeatedly paired together, leading to a conditioned response.
What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in classical conditioning?
The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.
What is a neutral stimulus in classical conditioning?
The neutral stimulus is a stimulus that initially produces no specific response but can become associated with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger a response.
How does classical conditioning work?
Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to eventually produce the same response as the unconditioned stimulus.
Who conducted the research for classical conditioning?
Pavlov - digestion in dogs
What was the aim of Ivan Pavlov’s research?
Pavlov aimed to study digestion in dogs but discovered classical conditioning through his work with dogs and their salivation responses.
How did Pavlov condition a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell?
Pavlov rang a bell at the same time as presenting food to the dog. Eventually, the dog salivated in response to the bell alone, even without food.
What was the dog’s initial response to the bell in Pavlov’s experiment?
Initially, the dog showed no response to the bell before the conditioning began.
What was the conditioned response in Pavlov’s experiment?
The conditioned response was the dog salivating to the sound of the bell, even when food was not present.
Classical conditioning is…
something neutral becomes associated with something that already makes you feel a certain way
The term used to describe something we perceive in the environment is…
stimuli
What is an example of classical conditioning?
Little Albert
Who conducted Little Albert study?
Watson and Rayner
What was Watson and Rayner’s aim of Little Albert?
To condition a fear of white rats in Little Albert
What was Watson and Rayner’s method of Little Albert?
Albert originally had no fear of white rats however when Albert was then shown a white rat accompanied with a loud bang noise a white rat was placed in front of little Albert, which made him scared due to the association
What were Watson and Rayner’s results of Little Albert?
Eventually, the fear response occurred when just the White rat alone was present without noise, this shows how it is possible to condition the brain to associate two things that have nothing in common
What is the process of classical conditioning>
the neutral stimulus causes no response, the unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response, Then the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result, after classical conditioning the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, which causes a conditioned response
What is operant conditioning (action)?
Operant conditioning is a form of learning where behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment. Maintains the association and a person learns to associate their action with an outcome
What are the possible consequences of behaviour in operant conditioning?
The possible consequences are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or punishment.
What did Skinner’s “Skinner box” experiment demonstrate?
Skinner’s experiment demonstrated how behaviour could be shaped by consequences, using a rat or pigeon in a controlled environment where pressing a lever would release food as reinforcement.
Who conducted the study for operant conditioning?
Skinner
How did Skinner apply his findings to human learning?
Skinner claimed that operant conditioning principles could be applied to human learning, such as giving rewards (e.g., house points or stars) for desirable behaviours, like producing neat work.
What variations did Skinner use in his experiment with the Skinner box?
Skinner introduced signals, such as a light or loudspeaker, to prompt lever pressing and used an electric shock to create negative reinforcement, where the rat had to press the lever to stop the shock.
What is positive reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement is when a reward is given for performing a desired behaviour, like a child receiving a smile from a parent for helping with chores.
What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is performed to avoid or remove something unpleasant, such as completing homework to avoid detention.
What is punishment in the context of operant conditioning?
Punishment is an unpleasant consequence that weakens a behaviour, like being shouted at by a teacher or losing pocket money from a parent.
How does negative reinforcement differ from punishment?
Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated, whereas punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
Shaping is the process of reinforcing gradual steps toward the desired behaviour, such as rewarding a pigeon for moving toward a target before requiring it to perform the final behaviour, like touching a disc.
How did Skinner use shaping to teach pigeons to play table tennis?
Skinner used shaping by reinforcing small steps that got closer to the final behaviour, ultimately teaching pigeons to play table tennis.
What do both classical and operant conditioning have in common?
Both classical and operant conditioning involve learning an association between two things.
Positive reinforcement is when…
You are more likely to repeat a behaviour because you have received a reward
Negative reinforcement is when…
You are more likely to repeat a behaviour because something is being taken away
What is the first strength of behaviourism?
The use of laboratory experiments means researchers can apply the scientific method to their research.
What is the second strength of behaviourism?
The behaviourist approach can be effectively used to understand and treat mental disorders, particularly through learning mechanisms such as classical conditioning.
What is the first limitation of behaviourism?
It may be overly reductive. - The behaviourist approach is criticised for being reductionist, as it explains behaviour purely in terms of observable stimuli and responses, without considering mental processes.
What is the second limitation of behaviourism?
First, animal studies may not always generalise to humans. Skinner’s operant conditioning assumes that humans and animals, like rats, learn in similar ways, but they live in different environments and may respond differently to stimuli, limiting the applicability of the results.
Second, ethical concerns arise from animal research. For example, Skinner’s experiments involved harming rats with an electrified floor, which caused distress and violated ethical guidelines by failing to protect the animals from harm.
Behaviourists assume…
Our behaviour is determined by stimuli and outcomes in our environment.
What are 3 assumptions about social learning theory?
- We learn by observing the behaviour of role models in our environment.
- Observational learning has four conditions: attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation
- Meditational processes influence our behaviour, we see something and the though gets processes
The first psychologist to research social learning theory was..
Bandura
What is observational learning?
we learn by observing and copying or imitating someone else’s behaviour.
What is imitation?
When an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and copies the behaviour
What is identification?
When an individual is influenced by another because they’re in someway similar or wish to be like them the mortal is the person with whom they identify - wants to be like them
What is modelling?
When someone performs a behaviour which is imitated/ When an individual imitates a models behaviour
When does observational learning take place?
As a result of one person watching another person and observing the consequences of behaviour for the other person
What are the 2 factors affecting observational learning?
- Identification
- vicarious reinforcement
What is vicarious reinforcement?
This is when the observer sees the model being rewarded for a behaviour, which increases the likelihood that the observer will imitate that behaviour, even though they don’t receive the reward themselves.
What is the role of meditational processes?
These are the cognitive processes that occur between observing a behaviour and deciding whether or not to imitate it. They involve thinking and evaluating the potential outcomes before deciding to imitate the behaviour.
What are the 4 meditational processes?
Attention, retention, motor repoduction and motivational process and
What are some factors influencing the choice of the model?
gender, ethnicity, higher status and greater expertise
When are people more likely to identify with the model?
If they feel similar to the model.
What is the attentional process?
The child carefully watches the model paying attention to detail
What is retention process?
The child stores the information in their memory
What is motivational process?
The child has been motivated to imitate their behaviour because of the rewards the model has gained
What is motor reproduction process?
The child has to be able to physically try and imitate the behaviour
What is the evidence to support social learning theory?
What was the design of Banduras study?
Bandura’s study had three levels of the independent variable: one group saw an adult model aggressive behaviour, another saw a non-aggressive model, and the third saw no adult model at all. He was testing whether children learn aggression by observing adults in a laboratory setting.
What was the aim of Banduras study?
Bandura carried out a laboratory experiment to test whether children would imitate adults who modelled aggressive behaviour.
What were the results of Banduras study?
Children are more likely to act aggressively if they observe an adult modelling aggressive behaviour.
Boys were more likely to imitate behaviour if they observed a model of the same gender because they identify with them more.
Children were more likely to copy the adult who was rewarded for their behaviour. - evidence for Learning by vicarious reinforcement.
What was Banduras sample?
The sample consisted of 36 boys and 35 girls, aged 3 to 6, from the Stanford University Nursery School. The children were pre-tested for their levels of aggression and then placed into groups with similar aggression levels.
What were the 3 conditions of Banuras study?
- 24 children were shown in aggressive model
- 24 children were shown in non-aggressive model
- Control group 24 children no model was shown
Why did Bandura carry out a second experiment?
to test how vicarious reinforcements affects behaviour
What did Bandura find out in his second experiment?
The children were more likely to imitate a model’s aggressive behaviour if the model received a reward of sweets than if the model received a punishment.
What is a strength of Banduras Study?
A strength of Bandura’s study is that it provides a high degree of control, allowing for clearer cause-and-effect relationships to be established.
What is a limitation of Bandura’s Study?
two limitations of Bandura’s studies are that they may lack ecological validity and involved ethical issues. weird room, may not generalise to real life One limitation of Bandura’s research is that his studies may lack… ecological validity
What is the 1st strength of Social Learning theory?
A strength of the social learning theory is that lab studies, such as Bandura’s, provide a high degree of control, which allows for clearer cause-and-effect relationships to be established.
What the 2nd strength of Social Learning theory?
A strength of social learning theory is that it takes into account the cognitive processes involved in learning, such as attention, retention, motivation, and motor reproduction.
What is the 1st limitation of Social Learning theory?
A limitation of social learning theory is that it ignores other causes of behaviour, particularly the influence of nature.
What is the 2nd limitation of Social Learning theory?
A limitation of social learning theory is that it doesn’t focus on the subjective individual experience and assumes people respond in a mechanical way according to mediational processes.
What are two main differences between social learning theory and the behaviourist approach?
Social learning theory says that, in addition to classical and operant conditioning, we can learn through observational learning.
Social learning theory says that mediational processes are involved in learning, whereas classical and operant conditioning state that learning is direct.
What is one potential problem with meditational processes?
A limitation of social learning theory is that meditational processes are not directly observable, making it difficult to measure and predict observational learning reliably.
what are three assumptions of the cognitive approach?
- Mental processes can be studied scientifically using carefully controlled experiments usually in laboratory conditions
- Mental processes lie between stimulus (environmental input) and response (actual behaviour). These mental processes are unobservable and we have to study them by looking at the information going into the system and the resulting behaviour
- Psychologist use models to represent behaviour for example information processing modelling the multitool model of memory this is because they are studying processes that are not directly observable
What are the 4 mental processes cognitive psychologists study?
Memory, perception, language and attention
The cognitive approach is a response to…
the behaviourist approach.
What is perception?
referring to how the mind senses stimuli.
What is attention?
referring to how the mind selects which stimuli to focus on.
What is memory at as a mental processes?
referring to how the mind stores information.
What are internal mental processes?
Internal mental processes are the private thought processes that occur between stimulus and response. These processes happen once information has entered the system (through sensory inputs like eyes and ears) and then lead to the resulting behaviour.
How do cognitive psychologists study internal mental processes?
by measuring behavioural responses, such as verbal or written reactions. This objective measurement allows them to form theories about what might be happening inside our minds.
Why can’t we directly observe memory or thought processes?
Memory and thought processes are internal, private, and cannot be directly observed. However, cognitive psychologists measure them through behavioural responses, like what participants say or do.
Who conduce the first classical research study for cognitive internal mental processes?
Ebbinghaus
What was the aim of Ebbinghaus’ (1885) study?
Ebbinghaus aimed to investigate memory by testing how well he could memorize long lists of nonsense words. His study provided the first experimental research on internal mental processes.
What did Ebbinghaus discover about forgetting?
Ebbinghaus found that forgetting was greatest immediately after learning, with the rate of forgetting slowing down after two days.
What is a study to support the separate function of internal mental processes?
Murdock
What was the aim of Murdock’s (1962) memory study?
Murdock aimed to investigate the primacy-recency effect and provide evidence for different memory stores (STM and LTM).
How did Murdock test memory in his study?
Murdock asked participants to recall as many of the 20 words they had just heard as possible, immediately after hearing the list.
What were the results of Murdock’s study?
Murdock found that participants recalled more words from the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list compared to the middle words.
What did Murdock conclude from his study?
Murdock concluded that the early words were stored in Long-Term Memory (LTM) and the last words were stored in Short-Term Memory (STM), while the middle words were displaced. This supported the multi-store model of memory.
Cognitive psychologists assume that the mind works like a computer, because stimuli are like , then mind those inputs, and then the behaviour is like an .
information processing model.
What do cognitive psychologists use to explain and make inferences about mental processes?
theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes
What do theoretical models help to do?
make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed.
What is the process of making inferences about mental processes in cognitive psychology?
making inferences means going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes based on results from a study, as mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be directly observed.
What is the “Information Processing Model” in cognitive psychology?
The Information Processing Model explains behaviour through a series of processes, including input (sensory data), encoding, processing (e.g., schemas), and output (the behavioural response).
What does the “input” stage involve in the Information Processing Model?
involves sensory data coming from the environment and being encoded by the individual.
What happens during the “processing” stage in the Information Processing Model?
During the processing stage, information is stored, and schemas (mental frameworks) help to interpret and process the data.
What does the “output” stage involve in the Information Processing Model?
In the Information Processing Model, the output stage involves the behavioural response, which is emitted after the information has been processed.
How does the Computer Model compare the mind to a computer?
looking at similarities, such as both processing information: input through senses (like a keyboard for a computer), processing in the brain (hard drive for a computer), storing in memory (hard drive for a computer), and retrieving information to display in behaviour (computer screen for a computer).
What is the basic idea of the Multi-Store Model of memory?
explains how information moves from sensory input to long-term memory, and also how memories are forgotten or lost over time.
Cognitivists make inferences…
about mental processes, based on observations of behaviour.
The cognitive approach to psychology involves…
using inference to refine theoretical models.
Making an inference means…
reaching conclusions about mental processes, based on observations of behaviour
Why do cognitive psychologists use models to explain mental processes?
Cognitive psychologists use models to simplify complex processes, turn abstract concepts into concrete forms, and provide a framework for research.
How do models simplify complex processes?
by breaking them down into parts, such as sensory memory, STM, and LTM, making it easier to understand the human memory system.
How do models turn abstract concepts into concrete forms?
by defining specific processes, like how STM holds approximately 7 units of information for 30 seconds, processed through auditory processing.
How do models provide a framework for research?
by breaking down mental processes into parts that can be studied individually. For example, Sperling’s research on sensory memory used this framework.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
the scientific study of brain structures, mechanisms, and processes responsible for mental processes (cognitive processes). It links biological factors with cognitive functions.
What does cognitive neuroscience study?
how brain structures and neurons influence mental processes, such as how we process information and make decisions. It uses brain imaging techniques like fMRI and PET scans.
How does cognitive neuroscience link the biological and cognitive approaches in psychology?
studying how brain structures and biological factors (like neurons and neurotransmitters) influence cognitive functions and mental processes.
What is a schema?
connive representation of our ideas about a person or situation
A schema is a mental framework , which we form from our experiences.
How are schemas formed?
through experience and allow us to predict what mat happen in our world
What do schemas enable and prevent us from?
- enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly
- prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
What are 2 problems with schemas?
- schema can lead to perceptual errors were an accurate eyewitness testimonies and memories
- schemer can cause biased recall or begin to see what we expect
Everyone’s schemas are informed by their own experiences, which means that…
different people have different schemas.
How has cognitive neuroscience developed over time?
with early research relying on post-mortem studies, such as the discovery of Broca’s area, and more recently using advanced brain imaging techniques like MRI scans.
What was early research on the brain based on?
relied on post-mortem studies, where researchers examined the brains of deceased individuals to understand brain functions. For example, Broca’s area was discovered in relation to speech production.
How have brain imaging techniques advanced in recent years?
In the last 20 years, brain imaging techniques like MRI scanning have been developed, allowing scientists to measure and observe brain activity with precision during mental processes like thinking.
What is Broca’s area and how was it discovered?
Broca’s area, which is linked to speech production, was discovered through post-mortem studies of patients with language impairments, showing damage to a specific area in the left frontal lobe.
What advantage do modern brain imaging techniques (e.g., MRI scans) provide over early research methods?
Modern brain imaging techniques like MRI scans provide precise measurements and allow scientists to observe brain activity in real-time, whereas early research relied on post-mortem examinations, which only provided information after death.
What study is an example of cognitive neuroscience?
Tulving
What did Tulving’s study of memory show about episodic and semantic memory?
Tulving’s study showed that episodic and semantic memory may be located in opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex, with episodic memory in the right prefrontal cortex and semantic memory in the left prefrontal cortex.
How did Tulving demonstrate the different locations of episodic and semantic memory?
Tulving used brain scans (PET scans) while participants performed memory tasks to show that the left prefrontal cortex was involved in recalling semantic memories, while the right prefrontal cortex was involved in recalling episodic memories.
What role do brain scans play in understanding memory?
Brain scans, such as PET scans, help locate different types of memory in specific areas of the brain, allowing for a better understanding of how memory works and how different memories are processed.
Whose study can also be used as an example of cognitive neuroscience
Maguire taxi driver studies
What is the 1st strength of the cognitive approach?
A strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses scientific experimental procedures, allowing for cause-and-effect relationships to be established. - rely on empirical evidence
What is the 2nd strength of the cognitive approach?
A strength of the cognitive approach is that it can be applied to understand and treat mental disorders.
What is the 1st limitation of the cognitive approach?
A limitation of the cognitive approach is that laboratory experiments may lack ecological validity.
What is the 2nd limitation of the cognitive approach?
A limitation of the cognitive approach is that it tends to ignore individual differences, especially when comparing humans to computers.
What are 3 assumptions of the biological approach?
- Behaviour Is Mainly Caused by Biological Factors, they have innate biological basis
- Human genes have evolved to adapt behaviour to the environment
- Human characteristics e.g. intelligence are due to our genetic make-up
What do biological psychologists investigate in terms of behaviour?
Biological psychologists investigate whether behaviours such as personality and intelligence are inherited.
How do twin studies help determine if traits have a genetic basis?
Twin studies compare the concordance rates (similarity) between monozygotic (MZ) twins and dizygotic (DZ) twins to see if certain traits are inherited. Higher concordance rates in MZ twins suggest a genetic basis for the trait.
What is a concordance rate?
A concordance rate is a measure of similarity between two individuals, typically used in twin studies to compare traits between MZ and DZ twins.
What is the concordance rate for OCD in MZ and DZ twins for OCD?
For OCD, the concordance rate is 87% in MZ twins compared to 47% in DZ twins, suggesting a genetic influence on the disorder.
What are chromosomes and where are they found?
Chromosomes are structures found in the nucleus of cells, made up of DNA. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
What is the role of genes in behaviour?
Genes interact with the environment to influence our body structure, function, and characteristics, and contribute to our behaviour and personality.
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual (the genes they possess).
Phenotype: The observable traits or characteristics of an individual, which result from the interaction of genes and the environment.
How can the same genotype result in different phenotypes?
Identical twins have the same genotype but may exhibit different phenotypes if reared in different environments. For example, differences in diet could lead to one twin being slim and the other larger.
What is DNA?
A chain of two or more more nucleotides joined together
Who conducted a study to support the separate existence of genetics on behaviour?
Goode
What did Goode’s 1996 study on mice reveal?
Goode’s study showed that mice, when reared alone and not exposed to aggressive behaviour, still exhibited aggression when later mixed with other mice, suggesting a genetic predisposition to aggression.
How is aggression related to genetics in animals?
Selective breeding studies in animals like rats and mice have shown that aggression can be influenced by genetic factors, even in the absence of environmental exposure to aggressive behaviour.
Genes control…
- our physical traits
- the productions of specific proteins
What are alleles?
genetic variation/ Different versions of a particular gene.
What is a neuron?
A neuron is a nerve cell, the basic unit of the brain and nervous system, that transmits messages across the body.
Sex cells…
They have 23 chromosomes, women’s are called eggs, mens are called sperm
What is the endocrine system?
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones, like the pituitary gland, which controls other glands and influences processes like mood, sleep, and aggression.
What are neurotransmitters?
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit messages between nerve cells (neurons) in the brain and nervous system. They play a key role in influencing behaviour.
Genetics inheritance is…
When traits are passed down from parent to child.
What is a genotype?
a person’s unique genetic make-up that is coded in their chromosomes and fixed at conception.
What is a phenotype?
a set of observable characteristics that differentiate one person from another.
Genes control the production of
proteins , which keep us alive and control our physical characteristics.
Phenotype also refers to individuals…
psychological and behavioural traits
What are monozygotic twins?
come from one zygote, both twins have exactly the same genes and so they have exactly the same genotype
What are dizygotic twins?
Non-identical, share 50% of their genes and 50% of genotype
What is shared environment?
A shared environment is the environment that a pair of twins share in common.
What is non shared environment?
A non-shared environment is the environment that a pair of twins don’t share in common.
genetic variation contributes to a trait if…
The concordance rate for monozygotic twins is bigger than the concordance rate for dizygotic twins.
In twin studies, we assume that…
Monozygotic and dizygotic twins have a similar amount of shared environment.
Who conducted a study to see how much depression is caused by genetic variation?
McGuffin
What was McGuffin’s method for his twin study?
McGuffin recruited a bunch of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, for which At least one twin had depression.
What was McGuffin’s findings for his twin study?
McGuffin found that if one monozygotic twin had major depression, there was a 46% chance the other twin had depression too. So, he found that monozygotic twins had a concodrancerate of 46%.
McGuffin found that if one twin had major depression, there was a 20% chance that the other twin did, too.
So, dizygotic twins had a concordance rate of 20%
Genetic variation does contribute to depression because the concordance rate was bigger for monozygotic than dizygotic twins.
Monozygotic twins had 46% concordance rates.
Major depression is likely to be partially influenced by genetics.
Dizygotic twins had 20% concordance rates.
What is the theory of evolution?
Charles Darwin - provided scientific evidence to show how random physical and behavioural changes to a species either enable it to adapt to its environment hence survival
What is the idea of natural selection?
The principle explains how the strongest genes survive and are passed onto the next generation, whilst the weaker gene alleles die out
What is evolution?
When a species gradually changes, over many generations.
Evolution involves DNA mutation which are…
Small changes to alleles which can happen during reproduction.
If a new allele makes an organism more likely to survive…
The organism is more likely to pass on that allele to future generations.
Cognitive neuroscience combines…
the cognitive approach and biological approach to psychology.
What is the first evaluation point for the biological approach?
The biological approach is considered scientific because it relies on empirical and objective data obtained through controlled laboratory procedures, allowing researchers to investigate cause-and-effect relationships in the brain.
What is the second evaluation point for the biological approach?
A strength of the biological approach is that it can be applied to understand and treat mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, by studying genetic influences and brain activity.
What is the first limitation point for the biological approach?
A limitation of the biological approach is that it is reductionist, as it breaks behaviour down into its constituent parts, such as genes, hormones, and brain patterns, rather than considering behaviour from a holistic perspective.
What are 3 assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
- Freud theorised that the personality has 3 parts id, ego and superego
- Freud assumed that a large part of our mental life operates at an unconscious level
- Freud assumed early childhood to very important for the development of the adult personality
What is the conscious?
directly aware of our thoughts/experiences
What is the preconscious?
thoughts not directly aware of but easily accessed
What is the unconscious mind?
thoughts were are not aware of
What is the role of the unconscious mind?
- to keep disturbing memories from childhood out of our awareness so we can function as an adult
- to keep biological instinct/drives which result from the sex instinct away from our conscious mind
What types of therapy did Freud use to reach the unconscious mind
Dream analysis, hypnosis and talking therapy
How did Freud use therapy to reach into the unconscious mind?
Free association, once the conflicts in the unconscious mind of the patients came to the surface they were discussed and worked through the the therapies
What did Freud say?
Dreams are the royal road to the unconscious mind
What is the tripartite structure of personality?
the 3 part personality:
id
superego
ego
What is the id principle?
pleasure principle where we desire instant gratification of our needs and desire. Instinct based
What is the ego principle?
reality principles acts as the mediator between the id and superego. It weighs up the demands of the id against the morals of the superego and helps decide on whether or not behaviour take place
What is the superego principle?
morality principle where we learn ‘right ‘ from ‘wrong’ usually from our parents. its a sense of guilt and morals
What are the 3 defence mechanisms used by the ego to prevent painful, upsetting or disturbing thoughts from the unconscious mind?
Repression, Denial, Displacement
What is repression?
when we forget something that is very painful (we push it into or unconscious mind)
What is denial?
refuse to believe something
What is displacement?
transferring thoughts and feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
What is an example of repression?
trauma during childhood could be suppressed which protects us
What is an example of denial?
may not accept that a close relative has died
What is an example of displacement?
Slamming the door after a row with your girlfriend
What part of the mind is the id in?
unconscious mind
What part of the mind is the superego in?
the conscious mind, the preconscious mind, the unconscious mind
What part of the mind is the ego in?
conscious mind
What did Freud suggest shaped adult personality?
a child progress through 5 psychosexual of development
Why are these called psychosexual stages?
each stage represent the fixation of libido on a different area of the body
What did Freud suggest would happen if a child suffered trauma?
the child may become fixated or stuck in that stage and unable to fully progress
What is the first stage of psychosexual stages?
oral
What is the second stage of psychosexual stages?
anal
What is the third stage of psychosexual stages?
phallic
What is the fourth stage of psychosexual stages?
latent
What is the fifth stage of psychosexual stages?
genital
What is the oral stage?
0-18months
Starts at birth - mouth is the first area of the body to be associated with please (signs of fixation - nail biting)
What is the anal stage?
18-36 months - pleasure moves to the anal region. The child has control/pleasure of expulsion and withholding faeces. Toilet training influences fixation at this stage (fixation - obsessively tidy and organised)
What is the phallic stage?
3-6 years pleasure now from the genital area. Opedipus complex = an unconscious conflict in the 4 year old boy where the child identifies with the opposite sex parent and wants to remove the same sex parent (fixation mother figure in adult relationship)
What is the latent stage?
6 years to puberty - energy into other activities such as hobbies and sport
What is the genital stage?
Puberty and beyond teenage years look for a partner
What is the oedipus complex?
boys desire their mothers and fear competition from their fathers. They are aggressive and jealous towards their father and experience castration anxiety. Sons emulate their father’s behaviour to correct the conflict.
The Electra complex mirrors this process. Girls envy and desire the father’s penis (penis envy) and blame the mother for castration. They emulate the mother’s behaviour to correct the conflict.
What are the 5 psychodynamic therapies?
Dream analysis, hypnosis, talking therapy, projective tests, transference
What is dream analysis?
listened to his patients dream and analysed them
What is hypnosis?
Hypnotised his patients to get into the unconscious mind
What is talking therapy?
Patients to lie on the Therapy couch and sit behind them so he did not prompt them or make them feel inhibited, and give them key words and let them talk
What is projective tests?
Freud used ambiguous pictures such as ink blob to encourage the person to talk this was a way into the unconscious mind
What is transference?
once the unconscious thoughts were revealed, freud used transference, where the patient would shout all their anger, onto the therapist who would pretend to be the relative who had cause the problem
What is castration anxiety?
fear of injury to or loss of the genitals
What study supports defence mechanisms is the psychodynamic approach?
Freud - Little Hans
What was the case study of little Hans?
Hans had a phobia of horses, which Freud interpreted as symbolising his father and castration anxiety linked to the Oedipus complex. Hans’ fear of being bitten represented the fear of castration, as Freud believed Hans had unresolved feelings towards his father and was very attached to his mother. Freud used Hans as a case study to support his theory of the psychosexual stages.
What is a limitation of Freud little Hans study?
One limitation of Freud’s case study of Little Hans is that the results may not generalise to other people.
What is the first strength of the psychodynamic approach?
One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that Freud was one of the first psychologists to investigate psychological causes for psychological disorders, contributing significantly to the development of therapeutic practices.
What is the second strength of the psychodynamic approach?
One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that Freud was one of the first psychologists to emphasise the importance of childhood experiences in shaping adult behaviour.
What is the first limitation of the psychodynamic approach?
A limitation of Freud’s approach is that it is not very scientific, as his research relied heavily on case studies and subjective interpretations, particularly of patients’ dreams.
What are three assumptions of the humanistic approach?
- Assumes that people have free will - they are free to choose what they do
- Assumes each person is unique and psychological should focus on the individual subjective experience
- Assumes that people must be looked at from a holistic perspective rather than trying to reduce behaviour into smaller elements
What is free will in psychology?
Free will is the idea that individuals have the ability to choose their behaviour and are self-determined. It assumes that people have control over their actions.
How does free will differ from determinism in psychology?
Free will suggests that we can actively choose our behaviour, while determinism implies that behaviour is influenced by external or internal forces beyond our control.
What does free will suggest we are?
active agents who can determine our own development
What does humanistic psychology reject?
the scientific approach because they feel we should be studying each persons individual, subjective experience
What is self-actualisation in humanistic psychology?
Self-actualisation is the innate drive to achieve one’s full potential in all aspects of life, such as career, hobbies, and personal growth. It’s the motivation to become the best version of oneself.
How does self-actualisation relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Self-actualisation is the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It can only be pursued after the first four levels—physiological needs, safety, love and belonging, and esteem—are fulfilled.
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
What did Maslow state?
People are motivated to achieve certain needs, when one needs is fulfilled a person seeks to fulfil the next one and so on.
What does the hierarchy of needs represent?
the idea of going up, moving up once one needs if fulfilled
Maslow thought that there was a hierarchy of needs. What does this mean?
Maslow ranked human needs based on how important they are.
What is the bottom tier of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Basic needs - physiological - breathing, food, water, sex, sleep - survival
What is the second tier of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Basic needs - safety - security of body, employment, resources, morality, health - A shelter
What is the middle tier of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
psychological needs - love and belonging - friendship, family, sexual intimacy
What is the fourth tier of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Need for esteem - self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect by others
What is the top tier of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Self actualisation - morality, creativity, acceptance of fact, problem solving
What is self actualisation?
the concept that humans strive to fulfil their potential
What is self concept?
the way an individual views themself
What is ideal self?
The person who the individual inspires to be
What is congruence in humanistic psychology?
The comparability and consistency between the perceived self (self concept) and the ideal self
According to Maslow what is self-actualisation?
when we reach our human potential
Who was Carl Rogers?
A humanistic psychologist who used counselling to help patients reach their full potential and be happy
What was the aim of Carl Rogers therapy?
To increase the clients level of congruence - to close the gap between the self concept and the ideal self.
What happens if the gap of congruence is too wide?
If the gap is incongruent the individual may have negative feelings of self worth
What did Carl Rogers develop?
Client centred therapy in order to reduce the gap between the two selves
What is the goal of client-centred therapy?
The goal of client-centred therapy is to increase congruence between the self-concept and the ideal self, leading to improved self-worth and personal development.
What is a ‘growth need’ in humanistic psychology?
A growth need is a higher-level psychological need, such as self-actualisation, which motivates individuals to reach their full potential. It is distinct from basic needs like food or safety.
What are conditions of worth in humanistic psychology?
Conditions of worth occur when a parent or significant other limits their love based on the child’s behavior or achievements. For example, a parent might say, “I will only love you if you do well in school.” This leads to the child feeling valued only when they meet certain expectations.
How can conditions of worth affect a child’s development?
cause the child to seek approval rather than exploring their own interests or taking risks. The child may focus on meeting external expectations (e.g., academic, sports) and struggle with self-worth if they fail to meet those standards.
What is the ideal parental response to a child’s mistakes, according to humanistic psychology?
unconditional positive regard, where the parent continues to express love and acceptance, regardless of the child’s behavior or mistakes. This helps the child feel valued and encourages them to develop a sense of self-worth independent of approval.
What are the three basic principles of client-centred therapy?
Genuineness: The therapist is authentic and transparent with the client, not aloof or distant.
Unconditional Positive Regard: The therapist shows no judgment of the client’s behaviour, accepting them without conditions.
Empathetic Understanding: The therapist understands the client’s thoughts and feelings from their own perspective.
How does client-centred therapy help increase self-worth?
By providing unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness, the therapist helps the client feel valued, which improves their self-esteem and helps them reduce incongruence between their self-concept and ideal self.
What kinds of issues has client-centred therapy been used to treat?
used for a wide range of difficulties, including depression, anxiety disorders, alcoholism, personality disorders, and more. It is used for people of all ages in various settings like hospitals, education, health, social work, and industry.
How does client-centred therapy maintain a client’s engagement in the therapy process?
works at the client’s pace, allowing them to feel in control of the process, which increases the likelihood that they will continue therapy and feel comfortable with it.
What is meant by “genuineness” in the context of client-centred therapy?
the therapist is open, honest, and transparent with the client. The therapist doesn’t maintain a distant professional façade but is real and approachable, which helps build trust.
Why is unconditional positive regard important in client-centred therapy?
the therapist accepts the client without judgment, creating a safe space where the client feels valued, supported, and free to express themselves without fear of rejection.
What is “empathetic understanding” in client-centred therapy?
involves the therapist seeing the world through the client’s eyes, understanding their thoughts, feelings, and experiences from the client’s perspective, without judgment.
How does client-centred therapy help reduce incongruence between the self-concept and ideal self?
By offering empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard, the therapist helps the client explore their true feelings and desires, reducing the gap between how they see themselves (self-concept) and how they wish to be (ideal self).
What is the role of the therapist in client-centred therapy?
To provide a non-judgmental, empathetic environment where the client can explore their thoughts and feelings. The therapist is supportive, genuine, and helps the client find their own solutions to their problems.
What is the first strength of the humanistic approach?
A strength of the humanistic approach is its emphasis on free will, in contrast to more deterministic theories like behaviorism and biology.
What is the second strength of the humanistic approach?
A major strength of the humanistic approach is its practical applications, such as in client-centred therapy and in real-world settings like business.
What is the first limitation of the humanistic approach?
A significant criticism of the humanistic approach is its lack of scientific rigor, particularly due to the absence of controlled lab research and the challenges in measuring key concepts like self-actualization.
