Issues and Debates Flashcards
What is the argument line of the free will and determinism debate?
Whether or not people are free to choose how to think and behave, or whether behaviour is determined and caused by factors outside on an individuals control
What is free will?
when we have full control over our behaviour, and no internal or external factors affect the choice
What is determinism?
the view that we never have control over our behaviour, as all behaviour has a cause
Which approach assumes free will?
Humanistic approach
What are the three types of determinism
Biological, environmental and psychic
What does the psychodynamic approach assume about determinism?
Psychic determinism, whereby behaviour is caused by the unconscious mind - repressed childhood experiences
What does the behaviourist approach assume about determinism?
environmental determinism, whereby all behaviour is caused by our environment - classical conditioning
What does the bioloigcal approach assume about determinism?
biological determinism, whereby all behaviour is caused by biological factors - natural selection
What is hard determinism?
The idea that all behaviour is predictable and caused by forces outside of the persons control, therefore we cannot control the forces acting on thoughts and behaviour
What is soft determinism?
The idea that all behaviours have causes, but behaviour can be determines by our conscious choices in the absence of coercion. Free of coercion but not free of causation/
What are the 2 types of internal determinism?
- Psychic determinism
- Biological Determinism
What is external determinism?
- Environmental determinism
What does environmental determinism suggest?
Behaviour occurs due to a cause in the environment that is external to the individual
What is psychic determinism?
all thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are determined by unconscious forces, such as past experiences or repressed desires. It suggests that free will is an illusion, as everything, including seemingly random actions, has an underlying cause rooted in the unconscious mind.
What is biological determinism?
the belief that human behavior and characteristics are largely shaped by genetic or biological factors, such as genetics, hormones, or brain structure. It suggests that our actions, thoughts, and emotions are predetermined by our biology, limiting the influence of free will.
What is evidence to support environmental determinism?
Milgram’s conformity study
What is evidence to support biological determinism?
Genes - twin studies suggest a genetic predisposition in schizophrenia (46% in identical twins, but only 1% un the general population). This suggests that the incidence of schizophrenia is, at least partially determined by genetic factors
What approach takes an interactionist viewpoint for free will v determinism?
the biological approach - consider the interaction between the environment and biology, all behaviour occur within an environment
What topic relates to psychic determinism?
Attachment
Explain how Attachment supports psychic determinism?
Bowby’s attachment theory suggests that the relationship a child has with their parent determines future relationships. In Main’s Adult Attachment Interview, she found a high correlation between childhood attachment and later relationships with children and partners. This supports psychic determinism, as it implies that early attachment patterns shape future relationships, suggesting that unconscious experiences from childhood influence adult behavior in a determined way.
What topic provides support for environmental determinism?
Social Influence
How does social influence provide support for environmental determinism?
Milgrams research into obedience demonstrated the power of the situation; the highest obedience levels were found in the variation when the victim could not been seen or heard. This is evidence for environmental determinism as the situation has governed the behaviour of the participants
What topic supports free will?
Social Influence
How does social influence support free will?
Milgrams obedience study could be argued to say that participants in Milgrams obedience research who did not obey the authority figure were exercising their free will to choose their behaviour (only 65% obeyed in the original research, therefore 35% disobeyed)
What is an implication/consequence of adopting a Free Will viewpoint?
The concept of free will has been challenged by the argument that there is no direct evidence to support its measurability, suggesting that free will is an abstract concept that cannot be objectively quantified.
What evidence supports that Free Will is genuine?
Despite free will’s immeasurability, there is evidence within social influence research suggesting the validity and existence of the free will position.
What evidence supports that determinism is genuine?
Advocates of determinism argue that accepting a deterministic framework is closely associated with positive outcomes
What does the nature nurture debate argue?
For any given behaviour, how much was that particular behaviour influenced by nature, how much by nurture
What does research for the nature nurture debate show about understanding behaviour?
Both nature and nurture are necessary to understand and explain human characteristics and behaviour
What is the view called for the nature side of the debate?
nativist
What is the view called for the nurture side of the debate?
empiricist
Who took the nativist view?
Descartes
Who took the empiricist view?
John Locke
What is the nativist view?
Belief in the concept of mind possessing innate ideas at birth, Human characteristics are innate (result from nature of heredity
What is the empiricist view?
The idea that knowledge is acquired from experience and observations rather than being innate
What does the nature side of the debate argue?
It suggests we act the way we do due to our genetic make-up and other biological processes (genes, brain structure, hormones)
behaviour is a product of genetic inheritance
behaviour can be understood by studying biological processes and structures such as hormones, neurotransmitters, regions of the brain
What does the nurture side of the debate argue?
Behaviour is shaped by experiences in your lifetime
What approach aligns with the nature side of the debate?
Biological approach
What approach aligns with the nurture side of the debate?
Behaviourist approach
How does the behaviourist approach align with the nurture side of the debate?
it focuses on how behaviour is learned from the environment through conditioning, rather than being innate or influenced by biology.
According to the nurture side of the debate how is behaviour learnt?
learning occurs via conditioning based on environmental forces/stimuli
What research is relevant to the nurture debate?
classical conditioning and operant conditioning as part of behaviourism - pavlov dog salvation
conformity to social roles as in the Stanford Prison experiment - Social Influence
Bobo doll study - Aggression
What research is relevant to the nature debate?
Genetic explanation for OCD, suggests individuals may inherit a vulnerability to OCD to fault SERT gene - Psychopathology
Maguires taxi driver study - enlarged grey matter in hippocampus
What theory is used in the nature study?
Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment is an example of a pro-nature argument as he based his ideas on the work of ethologists such as Lorenz, concluding that attachment is an essential evolutionary mechanism needed for the survival of the species
What is a strength of the nurture debate?
Twin studies - which are conducted to investigate a biological (nature) basis to behaviour - tend to (conversely) support a nature argument as well
Such studies fail to find 100% concordance between MZ twins
Concordance rates of around 50% suggest that upbringing and experience share equal importance with genetics in forming behaviour
This bolsters the argument that environment is a key influence on behaviour as twins are (usually) reared in the same household
What theory is used in the nurture study?
The learning theory of attachment is known as ‘cupboard love’ theory
This assumes that babies attach to whoever feeds them
The person who feeds them changes from the neutral stimulus to the conditioned stimulus as they become associated with food which is the unconditioned stimulus
What is a strength of the nature debate?
Understanding genetic inheritance has helped to identify atypical chromosome patterns as seen in conditions such as Klinefelter’s syndrome
This is a clear indication of a biological basis to behaviour as the condition is not determined by environmental influence
Therefore the nature side of the debate can be evidenced using clinical data
What is a limitation of the nature debate?
Twin studies have failed to show 100% concordance between MZ (identical) twins across a range of studies e.g.
McGuffin et al. (1996) found that MZ twins showed a 46% concordance rate for depression compared to 20% in DZ (non-identical) twins
Gottesman (1991) found a 48% concordance rate for schizophrenia in MZ twins and a 17% concordance rate in DZ twins
As MZ twins share exactly the same DNA then the concordance rate should reflect this (and as it does not then environment must play a role in behaviour as well)
What is a limitation of the nurture debate?
The nurture side of the debate cannot account for individual differences within children raised in the same family environment
One child may turn to crime while the other child never breaks the law
One child may develop a drug addiction while the other child does not
What is interactionism and what does it do?
It goes beyond assessing relative importance of genetic and environmental factors in shaping behaviour. It suggests that genes and the environment actively interact and influence each other
How do behaviourists consider interactionism?
they include biological elements in their theories, as they accept the role of biology, e.g. Pavlovs dog the dogs instinctual drooling response to food wasn’t a learned behaviour, it was a natural innate response/
How do biological psychologists consider interactionism?
They include learning in their theories, as the recognise the interaction between biological processes and environmental factors, plasticity in the brain adapts to learning and behaviour
What is an example of the interactionist approach in the nature nurture debate?
Diathesis stress model, there may be a genetic predisposition (nature) to the development of schizophrenia as those with inherited susceptibility may be more likely to develop the disorder if they experience certain stressful situations such as family with high expressed emotions
What is the holism and reductionism debate?
This debate does not argue the extent that either causes behaviour, but instead is two separate analysis’s.
What is Holism?
the idea that we should percieve things as a whole, in context and looking at the whole person.
How could an approach be holistic?
Any approach which emphasises the whole person whole system whole of behaviour or whole experience rather than component parts
What did the holistic approach assume about understanding people?
The whole person must be considered and cannot be broken down into different parts
What approach aligns with holism?
Gestalt psychology
What did gestalt psychologist belive?
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts they argued that is essential to look at the whole in studying any aspect of human function
What did gestalt psychologist apply holism to?
perception
What perception task demonstrates that we adopt a holsitic view?
The rule of closure that illustrates how dividing up phenomenon can destroy their character, dotted lines not touching appear to create a circle
What study demonstrates problem-solving showing all parts seen in relation to each other?
Kohlers, chimpanzee studies showed the insight learning happens when all parts are seen in relation to each other for a meaningful whole
What is a second approach that took a holistic view?
The humanistic approach
How is humanistic psychology holsiitc?
As it recall the attempt to analyse personality in terms of simple responses to stimuli it is not futile but it is disrespect for the unique quantity of the human spirit as a person can only be understood as a hole for the mind and body and therefore cannot be reduced to laws of conditioning or biochemical processing
What is evidence to support the holistic view?
Yin’s study
How did Ying study support the holistic view?
Yining assess the layout of the features emotional information in the context in which a face is seen and found that face is not recognise simply by dividing it into component parts such as the eyes nose mouth instead of face is recognised as a whole. He found an upside down face inverted and much harder to recognise as this creates a new relationship between facial features and therefore a new whole.
What view does reductionism take?
But understand he must analyse and reduce the whole person into the simplest and smallest component parts.
How can we explain the types of reductionism?
Using the levels of explanation
What are the levels of explanation?
- socio cultural
- psychological
- neurological
What is the hierarchy of sciences?
The hierarchy where the less precise, more general sciences are at the top and more narrowly focused, precise psychical sciences at the bottom
What is the most reductive explanation equivalent to?
The most scientific explanation
What is the socio cultural level of explanation?
Minority influence, conformity, media/culture and gender, high expressed emotions in schizophrenia
What is the psychological level of explanation?
Models of memory and central controlling schizophrenia
What is neurological level of explanation?
Drug therapy, dopamine, and schizophrenia, plasticity in memory
What is at the top of the hierarchy, holism or reductionism?
Holsim
What is at the bottom of the hierarchy, holism or reductionism?
Reductionism
What are the two types of reductionism?
Biological reductionism and behavioural reductionism
How does biological reductionism explain behaviour?
Biological reduction is the use of psychological reductionism in an attempt to explain or behaviour in terms of genes neuropsychologically or biochemsitry.
What does biological reductionism argue?
because we are made up of biological components or behaviour can be reduced to biological level and explained that level
Where does biological reductionism fit and why?
Fits within scientific psychology has explained behaviour in precise and concise terms. There does not take environmental influencers into account
What does the biological reductionism explanation aim to establish?
Aims to establish cause-and-effect laws of behaviour so they can offer practical applications and potential treatments which are more difficult to find with holistic approach
What does environmental reductionism focus on?
Observable behaviour with the appropriate unit of analysis of stimulus and response. Association strengthened by reinforcement complex behaviour is simply a series of stimulus in Responsa links
What did the principles of reductionism influence?
eThe development of radical behaviourism by what’s an and Skinner who reintroduced all animals and human behaviour to stimulus response linked that is strengthened by reinforcement and weakened by punishment
What would radical behaviourists argue?
There is no need to refer to cognitive factors to understand psychological phenomena as even though thought processes are behaviours
From environmental reductionism what has been created by focusing on over behaviour?
The importance of stimulus and response associations behaviour explanations have now created the token economy as it means of improving behaviour in prisons
What is an example of interactionism where biological reductionism and environmental reductionism work together?
Hogarty, relapse rates in schizophrenia drug therapy and family therapy and social skills training equal 0% relapse rate
What is a strength for holism?
A strength of the holistic approach is that it provides a more valid account of social behaviour. For example, in social influence, certain aspects of behaviour only emerge within a group context and cannot be fully understood by studying individuals in isolation. Specifically, in cases like minority influence, social behaviours depend on the dynamics between group members, including power imbalances and emotional responses. These factors are difficult to replicate under controlled conditions. Therefore, a holistic approach is preferable as it allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the role of social processes in shaping behaviour.
What is a limitation and issue for holism?
A limitation of the holistic approach is that it can be oversimplified, reducing its practical value. Holistic explanations often consider multiple interacting factors, making them complex and difficult to apply in real-world settings. For example, from a humanistic perspective, if we accept that depression is influenced by various factors such as biology, environment, and cognition, it becomes challenging to determine which factor is the most significant for treatment. This creates a practical dilemma for researchers and clinicians. Therefore, while the holistic approach provides a broad understanding, its complexity can make it less useful in practical applications, such as developing targeted treatments.
What is a strength for reductionism?
A strength of experimental reductionism is that it allows for the establishment of cause and effect, leading to practical applications in diagnosis and treatment. By isolating variables within empirical studies, researchers can study behaviour in a controlled and productive manner. For example, studies on conformity and obedience, such as Asch and Milgram’s experiments, successfully controlled variables to measure their effects. This level of control is not possible in real-world settings due to the numerous factors that could influence behaviour. Similarly, psychological research on mental illness has enabled the development of drug treatments, significantly reducing institutionalisation.
Therefore, experimental reductionism provides valuable insights by identifying key causal factors, allowing for effective interventions in both social behaviour and mental health treatment.
What is a limitation for reductionism?
Limitation for reductionism is that people are too complicated we have feelings and thoughts and therefore reductionism when trying to separate separate components does not always equate to real life by dividing behaviours in separate parts assumes that if we are apart we put back together but the original system can be restored. This may work for simple systems for not complex systems. When knowledge of individual parts may not provide an understanding of the whole. This could explain my reductionist explanations have yet to provide any explanations of the complexity of mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, we’re into related elements work together.
According to the idiographic and nomothetic approach what is the major differences between approaches in psychology?
the degree of attention paid to the individual
What does the idiographic view focus on?
the individual
What does the nomothetic view focus on?
general laws of behaviour
What are 3 features of the idiographic approach?
1) everyone is unique and therefore should be studied individually
2) general laws are not possible because of chance, free will and uniqueness of indidivudals
3) Acknowledges private, subjective and conscious experiences feelings and beliefs
What does the idiographic approach invetigate?
the individual in a personal and unique way
What type of data does the idiographic approach use?
qualitative methods of research
What type of studies does the idiographic approach use and why?
case studies, are favoured by the idiographic approach which gives a global understanding of the indvidual
What type of methods does the idiographic approach use - give 3 examples?
qualitative and holistic
1) unstructured interviews
2) Self reports
3) introspection
what other approach aligns with the idiographic approach and why?
the humanistic approach takes an individualistic view, focussing on the unqiue individual
What psychology used clinical case studies?
Freud
Why did Freud use clinical case studies?
to gain information about his patients.
What was Freuds clinical case study?
Little Hans: developed an unconscious fear enabling Freud to apply his concept of castration anxiety and the oedipus complex - idiographic approach to study naturally occurring case which could shed light on general laws of behaviour
What is a discussion point for the idiographic approach?
idiographic approach is that it can contribute to the nomothetic approach.
What is a discussion point against the idiographic approach?
A limitation of using the idiographic approach is that it limits the generalisability of psychological research, which can affect the development of effective treatments.
What are 2 features of the nomothetic approach?
1) emphasise general laws of behaviour that can be applies to large populations of people
3) 3 general laws can be astablished
What are the 3 general laws of the nomothetic approach according to Radford and Kirby?
1) Classifying people into groups
2) Establishing principles of behaviour that can be applied to people on general
3) Establishing dimensions on which people can be placed and compared
What type of data does the nomothetic approach use?
scientific and quantitative methods of investigation
How does the nomothetic approach use theories?
to generate hypothesis that are tested under controlled conditions
What type of people does the nomothetic approach study and why?
large groups of people, to try find general laws of behaviour that apply to everyone
Why does the nomothetic approach prefer quantitative data?
can statistically analyse data and make predictions about behaviour
Whose study is an example of nomothetic research?
Aschs line study to conformity (lab study, controlled conditions, large group)
What do behaviourists believe about the nature of learning?
Behaviourists believe in universal laws of learning, such as reinforcement and punishment, which apply to both animals and humans.
Why do behaviourists often conduct experiments on animals?
Behaviourists conduct experiments on animals because they believe the universal laws of learning (like reinforcement and punishment) can be applied to human behaviour, even though the studies are often done on animals.
How do the findings from animal studies in behaviourism apply to human behaviour?
The laws of learning (reinforcement and punishment) found in animal studies are applied to many aspects of human behaviour, as they are believed to be universal.
Can you name two psychologists whose work supports the application of behaviourist principles to human behaviour?
Harlow and Bowlby are examples of psychologists who applied behaviourist principles, like reinforcement and punishment, to human behaviour.
What other approaches take the nomothetic view?
cognitive, behavioural, biological - seek to establish general laws
What is a discussion point for the idiographic approach?
A strength of the nomothetic approach is that it is useful in predicting and controlling behavior by establishing cause-and-effect relationships, which can lead to effective treatments.
What is a discussion point against the idiographic approach?
A limitation of taking a nomothetic approach is that researching behavior under controlled conditions often overlooks the individuality of the person.
What is an example of classifying people into groups?
DSM IV classification of mental health disorders
What is an example of establishing principles of behaviour that can be applied to people in general?
Social influence research found general laws of conformity and obedience
What is an example of Establishing dimensions on which people can be placed and compared?
Bems sex role inventory
What are the key differences between the idiographic and nomothetic approaches?
The key differences are in the purpose of psychology, the research methods used, and generalisation.
How can the nomothetic and idiographic approaches be seen as complementary?
They complement each other as idiographic methods are suitable for describing and understanding behaviour, while nomothetic methods are better for predicting and controlling behaviour.
What is the role of the idiographic approach in psychology?
The idiographic approach is used to understand unique aspects of individual behaviour, such as in-depth investigations into specific cases (e.g., a person’s ability to apply STM to learning a long series of digits).
How can the idiographic and nomothetic approaches be complementary when studying behaviour?
Freud used triangulation techniques (e.g., interviews, medical records) to validate general laws established through idiographic research.
The idiographic approach can test nomothetic laws in areas where ethics prevent empirical research (e.g., animal studies vs. unique human cases like Genie or HM).
The idiographic approach can also trigger new experimental research in areas where general laws have not been established yet.
What is the role of the nomothetic approach in psychology?
The nomothetic approach is used to study general aspects of behaviour, typically through large sample studies (e.g., features/processes of STM).
How does the idiographic approach help when ethical considerations prevent research?
The idiographic approach can test nomothetic general laws in situations where ethics prevent empirical research (e.g., studying rare human cases like Genie or HM instead of animal models).
What does socially sensitive refer to?
refers to any psychological research that has wider ethical implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research
What do socially sensitive factors measure?
race or gender or sex…
What is an example of socially sensitive theory?
Bowlby’s Theory of Maternal deprivation,
Why is Bowlbys Theory of Maternal deprivation socially sensitive?
as it affected public perception about women who worked when their children were young - and put pressure on women to stay in the home
Why was Milgrams study into obedience of authority socially sensitive?
as he was measuring whether obedience was universal behaviour - or whether is was a German phenomenon
When do ethical issues arise?
When there is conflict between the researchers desire to collect valid data whilst preserving participants rights and dignity
Why are the ethical guidelines established?
To help protect participants
What are ethical implications?
psychological issues that have a social impact of psychological research after it has been completed
Why is concern regarding the wider ethical implications of research created?
As researchers have little control over how their findings are reported, represented or misinterpreted in the media and how it impacts on public policy
Who are the three people/groups in society research may affect?
1) the participants who may discover things about themselves that they were nit previously aware of
2) the researcher has adverse reactions to research being conducted the may affect them personally
3) Group represented by the research may be affected due to the findings being potentially applied to members of that group
Who identified areas where ethical implications are important?
Siber and Stanley
According to Sieber and Stanley, what are the 4 areas where ethical implications are important particularly when researching topics at social sensitive?
1) implications of the research
2) what the research will be used for
3) the effect on public policy
4) the validity of the research
What is the implications of the research?
We’re carrying out research can affect public perception of a particular group
What does what the research will be used for?
Research and theories use to support particular views and ideas
What is the effect on public policy?
Research and theory is used to support a policy
What is the validity of the research?
Issues in research could affect the outcome of the research
What is my first evaluation point of ethics and social sensitive research?
One way in which ethical implications are dealt with is by conducting a cost-benefit analysis.
What is my second evaluation point of ethics and social sensitive research?
When considering the ethical implications in socially sensitive research, different psychologists hold different views.
What is my third evaluation point of ethics and social sensitive research?
One way in which ethical implications are dealt with is by conducting socially sensitive research, which can benefit society as a whole.
What is the definition of universality?
The belief that all humans are alike so the what is truth one person will be true for everyone
What is the definition of bias?
Holding the lease and values influence objective facts
According to psychologists where do beliefs and values become influenced?
From social and historical context
What does alpha bias do?
Exaggerates differences between males and females presenting them as real and fixed
What can the differences between male and females due to the value of women?
Adopting an alpha bias occasionally these differences heighten the value of women more often than they value females in relation to their male counterpart
Generally, what does research look like when having an alpha bias?
focusing on either women or men
What is an example of research that has alpha bias?
Biological explanation of gender with atypical genes
What does beta bias do?
Minimises or ignores differences between men and women
With a beta bias, what often happens when women are not presented in research?
Beta bias assumes that the findings can be applied to both sexes
What is an example of research that has a beta bias?
Milgrim and ash in social influence
Generally, when having a beat of bias, what would research be?
Research studies would be with just male participants but generalised to both sexes
What is androcentrism?
biased that leans in favour of males because research comes from a male scented view of the world
what is an example of Androcentrism
social influence as as found conformity levels in men, however women are much more likely to conform than men
What is the first implication with Gender bias?
Limited Recognition of Gender Bias in Research
What is the second implication with Gender bias?
Implications of Gender Bias in Research
What is the third implication with Gender bias?
The Role of Reflexivity in Challenging Bias
What was the assumption for cultural bias?
its assumed that findings derived from studies carried out in Western cultures can be applied worldwide
What is an example of a study’s results not been replicated in other parts of the world?
Milgrams study, whose study was original conducted in the US, ppts revealed very different results when replicated else where
What is ethnocentrism?
Judging other cultures by the standards and values of our own culture belief and superiority of ones own culture which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures
What is an example of ethnocentrism?
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation assumes secure attachment was gold standard, the non anxious children, having a secure attachment is functional if you are a child who is going to live in a western culture, but its not going to work in a tribal community one like Mead was looking at. Embedded assumptions that secure attachment is the ideal.
What is the etic approach?
looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours
What is cultural relativism?
The view that behaviour can only be understood if the cultural context is taken into consideration
What is an example of cultural relativism?
mead lived with different cultures to study different cultural groups, 3 tried, tchambuli tribe - compare with western society, women runs businesses and men are more social
What is the emic approach?
looks at behaviour within a given culture and identities specific behaviours
What is the first limitation point for cultural bias?
Most influential studies in psychology are culturally biased - features in many classic studies of social influence
What is the first strength point for cultural bias?
strength of culturally biased research is that this heightened awareness of cultural diversity has led t o the development of ‘indigenous psychologies’ : theories drawing explicitly on the particular experiences of people in different cultural contexts - Afrocentrism, a movement which suggests that because all black people have their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context f behaviours and attitudes
What is the second limitation point for cultural bias?
Cross-cultural research is prone to demand characteristics - Western participants are more familiar - unfamiliarity in local populations may make them more prone to demand characteristics
