Psychopathology Flashcards
What is a mental disorder?
a condition in which people display abnormal moods thoughts and behaviours that a long lasting
What is the study of mental disorders called?
Psychopathology
What is the role of a doctor in diagnosing a mental disorder?
The doctor assesses the patient’s condition, considers their symptoms, and if a disorder is identified, they provide a diagnosis.
What is the self-report technique in diagnosing mental disorders?
The self-report technique involves patients describing their symptoms, which doctors use to help assess their condition.
What is the DSM and how does it help doctors diagnose mental disorders?
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a manual used by doctors to compare a patient’s symptoms with descriptions of mental disorders and identify a diagnosis
How was the DSM developed?
The DSM was created by doctors from around the world who compared symptoms of patients with normal patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours to create a list of mental disorders.
How might a doctor use the DSM to diagnose a patient?
If a patient describes symptoms that match a mental disorder in the DSM, the doctor can diagnose them.
What is the benefit of studying mental disorders?
Studying mental disorders helps us understand them, enabling us to diagnose individuals and develop treatments.
How does untreated mental disorders affect work performance?
Untreated mental disorders can affect an individual’s ability to concentrate, making them less productive and causing them to complete less work.
What is absenteeism, and why is it problematic?
Absenteeism is when employees don’t show up to work. It’s problematic because it costs companies money, as they pay employees who aren’t working, which affects the economy.
How does absenteeism affect the economy?
When companies lose money due to absenteeism, they have less to offer in terms of raises or hiring new employees, which can slow down the economy.
What happens to the economy when mental disorders are treated effectively?
When mental disorders are treated effectively, employees are healthier and more productive, leading to greater revenue for companies. This can create more jobs and raise wages.
How does psychopathology research benefit everyone?
Psychopathology research benefits everyone by helping treat mental disorders, reducing absenteeism, increasing productivity, and strengthening the economy.
What is dysfunctional behaviour?
Behaviour that is not normal
How can dysfunctional behaviour also be identified as?
Statistical infrequency
What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?
- deviation from social norms
- deviation from ideal mental health
- failure to function adequately
- statistical infrequency
What are social norms?
Social norms are unwritten rules for how members of a social group are expected to behave.
What is deviation from social norms?
When a person behaves in a way that is different from how we expect people to behave they may be seen as abnormal
What is abnormality?
A person is abnormal when their behaviour doesn’t follow the social norms
What is a strength of the deviation for social norms definition of abnormality is?
The definition helps to minimise harm to others.
What is a positive consequence of classifying people as being abnormal using the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality?
The definition means that we can treat people, and prevent them from causing harm to others.
what is a limitation with deviation from social norms?
It means that our classification of mental disorders has to be updated all the time, as social norms change over time. Diagnoses of mental disorders lack reliability, because they’re not consistent over time.
What is a second limitation of using deviation from social norms to define abnormal behaviour
?
People from ethnic minorities might be considered abnormal, because they’re being judged by social norms that are different to their own culture.
People from ethnic minorities might be misdiagnosed as having a mental disorder, because they are judged by different cultural norms.
What is deviation from ideal mental health?
the more a person deviates from ideal mental health, the more abnormal they are.
a person is abnormal if they fail to display behaviours that indicate an ideal mental health.
When a person behaves in a way that is different to everyone else’s behaviour, we say that they…
deviate from normal behaviour
What came up with the list to determine if someone has ideal mental health?
Marie Jahoda
What were the 6 criteria listed by Marie Jahoda?
1) Positive self-attitude
2) Behaving independently
3) Self-actualisation
4) Resistance to stress
5) Accurate perception of reality
6) Environmental mastery
What is positive self attitude?
When an individual feels positive about themselves and their abilities
What is behaving independently?
When an individual can do stuff by themselves and doesn’t depend on others
What is Self-actualisation?
When an individual is constantly trying to learn and improve and develop themselves
What is resistance to stress?
The ability to cope with small hassles in everyday life
What is having Accurate perception of reality?
focused on how the individual sees the world around them
What is Environmental mastery?
When an individual can adjust to new situations easily
What is a strength for deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?
it enables patients who are diagnosed as abnormal to set themselves clear goals for achieving ideal mental health.
What is a limitation for deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?
- the criteria for ideal mental health are overly demanding, the standard are too high and it is unrealistic to reach all the criteria all the time
- The criteria are difficult to measure objectively, the criteria is cultural specific as the idea of self actualisation works in western society where we have access to education and opportunities to develop but in other cultures it is not as simple
What is failure to function adequately?
When an individual is unable to cope with the demands of every day life.
What is an example of failing to function adequately?
basic standards of nutrition and hygiene, holding a job and keeping relationships
What is a strength of failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?
The behaviours used to identify abnormality can be easily observed and measured - when making a judgement on this criteria, people who are abnormal are easily identified and diagnosed.
What is a limitation of failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?
The definition fails to identify people who do cope well with everyday life, but that have a mental disorder.
What is a second limitation of failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?
We all sometimes behave in ways that are bad for us, and that cause failure to cope, doesn’t mean they have a mental disorder - not all maladaptive behaviour is a sign of mental disorder
What is statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?
a particular behaviour can seen seen as dysfunctional so if it is rare in society
It says that behaviour is considered abnormal if the behaviour is statistically infrequent.
It says that behaviour is considered abnormal if only a small percentage of people display the behaviour
What does statistically frequent mean?
When a large percentage of people display a behaviour or trait
What does statistically infrequent mean?
When a small percentage of people display a behaviour or trait
How do doctors work out how popular a particular trait or behaviour is in a population?
If data is plotted on a graph, lots of people cluster together in a middle group where the curve is highest, much fewer people of both extremes
What is normal distribution?
an arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forms a bell-shaped pattern where the mean, median and/or mode falls in the centre at the highest peak.
When is a behaviour or trait considered abnormal?
When behaviour or trait is shared by 5% of the population or less, it is defined as abnormal.
What is a strength of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?
- Provides easy and practical way of diagnosing people, a definition quantitive line
- relies less on the doctors subjective interpretation of the patient so The doctor will be more objective and is less likely to display personal bias.
What is a limitation of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?
some mental disorders aren’t infrequent, they are not statistically rare but are still classed as abnormal e.g. more than 5% of the population experience depression
doesn’t consider the desirability of behaviours, Some traits are statistically infrequent but they’re also desirable.
What is a phobia?
an irrational fear that is extreme and effects everyday functioning
A phobia is a mental disorder characterised by 3 symptoms. The first symptom of a phobia is…
a persistent fear of a specific stimulus
What is the second symptom of a phobia?
Irrational (odd) beliefs about the feared stimulus that are unlikely to be true
avoidance of the feared stimulus is the 3rd symptom of phobias?
avoidance of the feared stimulus
What 3 things does a person need to display In order to be diagnosed with a phobia?
- persistent anxiety and fear of a specific stimulus
- irrational beliefs about the feared stimulus
- avoidance of the feared stimulus
What are the 3 behavioural characteristics of phobias?
Panic = cry, scream, run away, children may act different and freeze
avoidance = a lot of effort to prevent coming contact with the phobia, makes it hard to go about daily life
endurance = person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus
What are the 3 emotional characteristics of phobias?
Anxiety = unpleasant state of high arousal, prevents sufferer from relaxing and makes it difficult to experience any positive emotion
Fear = the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter a phobic stimulus
Emotional response is unreasonable = the responses to the phobic stimulus is much greater than any ‘normal’ and disproportionate to any threat posed
What are cognitive symptoms of phobias?
Selective attention to the phobic stimulus = hard to not pay attention to it, keeping our attention on something dangerous
Irrational beliefs = odd beliefs about the stimulus that are unlikely to be true
Cognitive distortions = phobic perceptions of the stimulus mat be distorted
What is a specific phobia?
A phobia of a material thing, like a snake
What is a social phobia?
fear of being In social situations
What is agoraphobia?
fear of situations that is hard to escape, like getting stuck in a car
What are the 3 types of phobias?
- social phobia
- specific phobia
- agoraphobia
How are phobias acquired according too the behaviourist explanation?
through classical conditioning
What is the two process model?
the ideas that phobias are 1st acquired through classical conditioning and 2nd maintained by of operant conditioning
What can happen in classical conditioning?
A person can learn to fear a previously neutral stimulus when it is paired with a frightening event
According to the behaviourist explanation of phobias, why do phobias develop?
The person forms an association between the neutral and unconditioned stimulus, The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and the person develops a conditioned response to the stimulus
According to the behaviourist explanation of phobias…
Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and develop when a neutral stimulus is encountered alongside an unpleasant unconditioned stimulus.
How are phobias maintained?
through operant conditioning because the person learns that the fear is reduced by avoiding the stimulus
What is operant conditioning?
a learning method that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour
positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
How does the behaviourist approach explain that phobias are maintained by operant conditioning?
avoidance of the feared stimulus is negatively reinforced.
What happens in operant conditioning?
if an individual runs away when they see their phobia, they will feel better (positively reinforced)
it will encourage then to repeat the behaviour again
What is the research study to support classical conditioning for the behaviourist explanation for phobias?
Little Albert study
What was Watson and Rayners aim for the little Albert study?
To test whether humans could aware a phobia through classical conditioning
What was the method for the little Albert study?
Before the experiment, the researchers noted that Little Albert showed no response to a white rat. So, the rat was a neutral stimulus, every time the rat was placed infant of him Watson and Rayner made a loud band noise, they repeated this 3 times and he cried because of the loud noise
They then presented little Albert with the white rat without the bang and he still cried
Through repeated experience, Albert had learned to associate the white rat with a scary loud noise. This meant the rat had become a…
conditioned stimulus
Whenever Albert saw the white rat, he cried, meaning that crying became a…
conditioned response
Albert had acquired a phobia through…
classical conditioning
What do the findings of the little Albert study support?
Little Albert provides evidence to support the first stage of the two-process model.
Summaries the little Albert study?
Watson & Rayner conducted a case study of Little Albert in 1920.
Watson and Rayner repeatedly presented the white rat with a loud scary noise.
Through repeated experience, Little Albert learned to associate the white rat with a loud noise, making the rat a conditioned stimulus.
What is the first strength of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
shows how phobia is maintained over time which is imprint for therapy as it highlights in importance of exposure to the fear
What is the second strength of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
treatment is effective in removal of the phobia, which it gives support of the theory that a phobia is acquired through learning, Lang snake phobias wrench successfully treated through classical conditioning
What is the third strength of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
Support by research studies, evidence from the Watson and Rayner little Albert, when a phobias was conditioned in a child who was not initially scare of rats
What is the first limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
cannot explain fears that develop gradually such as social phobias and cannot be traced back to a particular incident
What is the second limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
doesn’t explain individual differences some people experience an incident which contributes to a phobia
What is the third limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
many suggest that evolution factors are imprints and these don’t feature the 2 process model
What is the fourth limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
A limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation for phobias is that other approaches, such as the cognitive and psychodynamic approaches, offer alternative explanations that challenge the two-process model.
What are the two behaviourst treatments to phobias?
- systematic desensitisation
- flooding
What is flooding?
involves exposing the patient to their most feared stimulus first and without gradual build up of an anxiety hierarchy
involves the patient being exposed to their worst fear in one go, and encouraged to remain near their feared stimulus until their anxiety has worn off.
What is flooding also known as?
implosion theory
How does flooding affect the patient?
Flooding can be very frightening as the patient must face their fear immediately, but it may be enough to eliminate the fear in one session.
How long can a session of flooding last?
A session of flooding can last up to 3 hours.
Why is flooding effective in reducing fear?
Flooding can be highly effective in reducing fear quickly because the patient begins to see the feared object or situation as harmless.
Why does flooding work in treating phobias?
Flooding works because it prevents the patient from avoiding the feared stimulus, allowing them to confront it directly.
How does flooding help break the conditioned association between the feared stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus?
When the patient is confronted with the feared stimulus during flooding, they see that the conditioned stimulus does not lead to the unconditioned stimulus, breaking the association and is harmless
What happens to the conditioned response during flooding?
During flooding, the conditioned relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response is extinguished, reducing the fear response.
What is a research study that supports flooding?
Wessels research study
What was Wessels aim?
To test the effectiveness of flooding as a therapy for phobias
What was Wessels procedure?
Three different groups were given treatment:
Group 1 = prolonged real exposure to the feared object
Group 2 = Flooding in the imagination of the feared object
Group 3 = A combination of prolonged real exposure and flooding exposure
Wessels assists the participants are the beginning of treatment, during and after the end of treatment and at the follow up one month later.
What was Wessel assessing in his research study for flooding?
- measuring anxiety and avoidance on scaled
- by an independent observer
- carries out by the client
What were the results of Wessels flooding study?
Flooding as effective in reducing symptoms of phobias
A combination of prolonged real exposure and imagination exposure/flooding (group 3) was the most effective treatment, followed by prolonged real exposure to the fear object (group one)
What did Wessel conclude about flooding?
Flooding can provide an effective therapy for clients with phobias. It is more effective if used as a combination of real and imagined exposure
What is my first strength of flooding?
A strength of flooding as therapy for phobias is that it is a very quick and effective way to remove a phobia.
What is my second strength of flooding?
A strength of flooding as therapy for phobias is that its success supports the idea that phobias persist because the feared object is avoided in real life, preventing the extinction of the fear.
What is my first limitation of flooding?
A limitation of flooding is that it is only suitable for certain types of phobias, such as those involving animals, and is less effective for others, like social phobias.
What is my second limitation of flooding?
A limitation of flooding as therapy for phobias is that, despite informed consent, the high levels of anxiety experienced during the treatment raise ethical concerns
What is my third limitation of flooding?
A further limitation of flooding, linked to the high anxiety it induces, is the issue of relapse rates. Even if the phobia is initially reduced or eliminated, there is a risk that the phobia may return or be replaced by a different one.
What is systematic desensitisation?
gradually exposures to the feared stimulus in stages using a feared hierarchy while practicing relaxation techniques until the patient stop feelings persistent fear, the a desensitised to the stimuli
What premise is systematic desensitisation is based on?
That two conflicting emotions fear and relaxation cannot occur at the same time.
What is a fear hierarchy?
A list from the least to most feared stimulus
What are the 3 steps of systematic desensitisation?
- Patients are taught relaxation techniques
- Patients are asked to create a fear hierarchy of least to most feared stimulus
- The patient is exposed to the feared stimulus gradually in stages, ensuring that they stay relaxed at each stage.
What are the relaxation techniques?
Breathing techniques or muscle relaxation or mental imagery such as imagining themselves in a calm place
How is relaxation techniques beneficial for phobias?
They can remain calm and relaxed when they are exposed to the object
What is an example of an anxiety hierarchy of fear?
Least feared would be a cartoon picture of a friendly dog and gradually the most feared would be a large ferocious dog in the park
