Psychopathology Flashcards
(282 cards)
1
Q
What is a mental disorder?
A
a condition in which people display abnormal moods thoughts and behaviours that a long lasting
2
Q
What is the study of mental disorders called?
A
Psychopathology
3
Q
What is the role of a doctor in diagnosing a mental disorder?
A
The doctor assesses the patient’s condition, considers their symptoms, and if a disorder is identified, they provide a diagnosis.
4
Q
What is the self-report technique in diagnosing mental disorders?
A
The self-report technique involves patients describing their symptoms, which doctors use to help assess their condition.
5
Q
What is the DSM and how does it help doctors diagnose mental disorders?
A
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a manual used by doctors to compare a patient’s symptoms with descriptions of mental disorders and identify a diagnosis
6
Q
How was the DSM developed?
A
The DSM was created by doctors from around the world who compared symptoms of patients with normal patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours to create a list of mental disorders.
7
Q
How might a doctor use the DSM to diagnose a patient?
A
If a patient describes symptoms that match a mental disorder in the DSM, the doctor can diagnose them.
8
Q
What is the benefit of studying mental disorders?
A
Studying mental disorders helps us understand them, enabling us to diagnose individuals and develop treatments.
9
Q
How does untreated mental disorders affect work performance?
A
Untreated mental disorders can affect an individual’s ability to concentrate, making them less productive and causing them to complete less work.
10
Q
What is absenteeism, and why is it problematic?
A
Absenteeism is when employees don’t show up to work. It’s problematic because it costs companies money, as they pay employees who aren’t working, which affects the economy.
11
Q
How does absenteeism affect the economy?
A
When companies lose money due to absenteeism, they have less to offer in terms of raises or hiring new employees, which can slow down the economy.
12
Q
What happens to the economy when mental disorders are treated effectively?
A
When mental disorders are treated effectively, employees are healthier and more productive, leading to greater revenue for companies. This can create more jobs and raise wages.
13
Q
How does psychopathology research benefit everyone?
A
Psychopathology research benefits everyone by helping treat mental disorders, reducing absenteeism, increasing productivity, and strengthening the economy.
14
Q
What is dysfunctional behaviour?
A
Behaviour that is not normal
15
Q
How can dysfunctional behaviour also be identified as?
A
Statistical infrequency
16
Q
What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?
A
- deviation from social norms
- deviation from ideal mental health
- failure to function adequately
- statistical infrequency
17
Q
What are social norms?
A
Social norms are unwritten rules for how members of a social group are expected to behave.
18
Q
What is deviation from social norms?
A
When a person behaves in a way that is different from how we expect people to behave they may be seen as abnormal
19
Q
What is abnormality?
A
A person is abnormal when their behaviour doesn’t follow the social norms
20
Q
What is a strength of the deviation for social norms definition of abnormality is?
A
The definition helps to minimise harm to others.
21
Q
What is a positive consequence of classifying people as being abnormal using the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality?
A
The definition means that we can treat people, and prevent them from causing harm to others.
22
Q
what is a limitation with deviation from social norms?
A
It means that our classification of mental disorders has to be updated all the time, as social norms change over time. Diagnoses of mental disorders lack reliability, because they’re not consistent over time.
23
Q
What is a second limitation of using deviation from social norms to define abnormal behaviour
?
A
People from ethnic minorities might be considered abnormal, because they’re being judged by social norms that are different to their own culture.
People from ethnic minorities might be misdiagnosed as having a mental disorder, because they are judged by different cultural norms.
24
Q
What is deviation from ideal mental health?
A
the more a person deviates from ideal mental health, the more abnormal they are.
a person is abnormal if they fail to display behaviours that indicate an ideal mental health.
25
When a person behaves in a way that is different to everyone else’s behaviour, we say that they...
deviate from normal behaviour
26
What came up with the list to determine if someone has ideal mental health?
Marie Jahoda
27
What were the 6 criteria listed by Marie Jahoda?
1) Positive self-attitude
2) Behaving independently
3) Self-actualisation
4) Resistance to stress
5) Accurate perception of reality
6) Environmental mastery
28
What is positive self attitude?
When an individual feels positive about themselves and their abilities
29
What is behaving independently?
When an individual can do stuff by themselves and doesn't depend on others
30
What is Self-actualisation?
When an individual is constantly trying to learn and improve and develop themselves
31
What is resistance to stress?
The ability to cope with small hassles in everyday life
32
What is having Accurate perception of reality?
focused on how the individual sees the world around them
33
What is Environmental mastery?
When an individual can adjust to new situations easily
34
What is a strength for deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?
it enables patients who are diagnosed as abnormal to set themselves clear goals for achieving ideal mental health.
35
What is a limitation for deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?
- the criteria for ideal mental health are overly demanding, the standard are too high and it is unrealistic to reach all the criteria all the time
- The criteria are difficult to measure objectively, the criteria is cultural specific as the idea of self actualisation works in western society where we have access to education and opportunities to develop but in other cultures it is not as simple
36
What is failure to function adequately?
When an individual is unable to cope with the demands of every day life.
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What is an example of failing to function adequately?
basic standards of nutrition and hygiene, holding a job and keeping relationships
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What is a strength of failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?
The behaviours used to identify abnormality can be easily observed and measured - when making a judgement on this criteria, people who are abnormal are easily identified and diagnosed.
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What is a limitation of failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?
The definition fails to identify people who do cope well with everyday life, but that have a mental disorder.
40
What is a second limitation of failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?
We all sometimes behave in ways that are bad for us, and that cause failure to cope, doesn't mean they have a mental disorder - not all maladaptive behaviour is a sign of mental disorder
41
What is statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?
a particular behaviour can seen seen as dysfunctional so if it is rare in society
It says that behaviour is considered abnormal if the behaviour is statistically infrequent.
It says that behaviour is considered abnormal if only a small percentage of people display the behaviour
42
What does statistically frequent mean?
When a large percentage of people display a behaviour or trait
43
What does statistically infrequent mean?
When a small percentage of people display a behaviour or trait
44
How do doctors work out how popular a particular trait or behaviour is in a population?
If data is plotted on a graph, lots of people cluster together in a middle group where the curve is highest, much fewer people of both extremes
45
What is normal distribution?
an arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forms a bell-shaped pattern where the mean, median and/or mode falls in the centre at the highest peak.
46
When is a behaviour or trait considered abnormal?
When behaviour or trait is shared by 5% of the population or less, it is defined as abnormal.
47
What is a strength of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?
- Provides easy and practical way of diagnosing people, a definition quantitive line
- relies less on the doctors subjective interpretation of the patient so The doctor will be more objective and is less likely to display personal bias.
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What is a limitation of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?
some mental disorders aren't infrequent, they are not statistically rare but are still classed as abnormal e.g. more than 5% of the population experience depression
doesn't consider the desirability of behaviours, Some traits are statistically infrequent but they’re also desirable.
49
What is a phobia?
an irrational fear that is extreme and effects everyday functioning
50
A phobia is a mental disorder characterised by 3 symptoms. The first symptom of a phobia is...
a persistent fear of a specific stimulus
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What is the second symptom of a phobia?
Irrational (odd) beliefs about the feared stimulus that are unlikely to be true
52
avoidance of the feared stimulus is the 3rd symptom of phobias?
avoidance of the feared stimulus
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What 3 things does a person need to display In order to be diagnosed with a phobia?
- persistent anxiety and fear of a specific stimulus
- irrational beliefs about the feared stimulus
- avoidance of the feared stimulus
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What are the 3 behavioural characteristics of phobias?
Panic = cry, scream, run away, children may act different and freeze
avoidance = a lot of effort to prevent coming contact with the phobia, makes it hard to go about daily life
endurance = person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus
55
What are the 3 emotional characteristics of phobias?
Anxiety = unpleasant state of high arousal, prevents sufferer from relaxing and makes it difficult to experience any positive emotion
Fear = the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter a phobic stimulus
Emotional response is unreasonable = the responses to the phobic stimulus is much greater than any 'normal' and disproportionate to any threat posed
56
What are cognitive symptoms of phobias?
Selective attention to the phobic stimulus = hard to not pay attention to it, keeping our attention on something dangerous
Irrational beliefs = odd beliefs about the stimulus that are unlikely to be true
Cognitive distortions = phobic perceptions of the stimulus mat be distorted
57
What is a specific phobia?
A phobia of a material thing, like a snake
58
What is a social phobia?
fear of being In social situations
59
What is agoraphobia?
fear of situations that is hard to escape, like getting stuck in a car
60
What are the 3 types of phobias?
- social phobia
- specific phobia
- agoraphobia
61
How are phobias acquired according too the behaviourist explanation?
through classical conditioning
62
What is the two process model?
the ideas that phobias are 1st acquired through classical conditioning and 2nd maintained by of operant conditioning
63
What can happen in classical conditioning?
A person can learn to fear a previously neutral stimulus when it is paired with a frightening event
64
According to the behaviourist explanation of phobias, why do phobias develop?
The person forms an association between the neutral and unconditioned stimulus, The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and the person develops a conditioned response to the stimulus
65
According to the behaviourist explanation of phobias...
Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and develop when a neutral stimulus is encountered alongside an unpleasant unconditioned stimulus.
66
How are phobias maintained?
through operant conditioning because the person learns that the fear is reduced by avoiding the stimulus
67
What is operant conditioning?
a learning method that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour
positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
68
How does the behaviourist approach explain that phobias are maintained by operant conditioning?
avoidance of the feared stimulus is negatively reinforced.
69
What happens in operant conditioning?
if an individual runs away when they see their phobia, they will feel better (positively reinforced)
it will encourage then to repeat the behaviour again
70
What is the research study to support classical conditioning for the behaviourist explanation for phobias?
Little Albert study
71
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What was Watson and Rayners aim for the little Albert study?
To test whether humans could aware a phobia through classical conditioning
73
What was the method for the little Albert study?
Before the experiment, the researchers noted that Little Albert showed no response to a white rat. So, the rat was a neutral stimulus, every time the rat was placed infant of him Watson and Rayner made a loud band noise, they repeated this 3 times and he cried because of the loud noise
They then presented little Albert with the white rat without the bang and he still cried
74
Through repeated experience, Albert had learned to associate the white rat with a scary loud noise. This meant the rat had become a...
conditioned stimulus
75
Whenever Albert saw the white rat, he cried, meaning that crying became a...
conditioned response
76
Albert had acquired a phobia through…
classical conditioning
77
What do the findings of the little Albert study support?
Little Albert provides evidence to support the first stage of the two-process model.
78
Summaries the little Albert study?
Watson & Rayner conducted a case study of Little Albert in 1920.
Watson and Rayner repeatedly presented the white rat with a loud scary noise.
Through repeated experience, Little Albert learned to associate the white rat with a loud noise, making the rat a conditioned stimulus.
79
What is the first strength of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
shows how phobia is maintained over time which is imprint for therapy as it highlights in importance of exposure to the fear
80
What is the second strength of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
treatment is effective in removal of the phobia, which it gives support of the theory that a phobia is acquired through learning, Lang snake phobias wrench successfully treated through classical conditioning
81
What is the third strength of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
Support by research studies, evidence from the Watson and Rayner little Albert, when a phobias was conditioned in a child who was not initially scare of rats
82
What is the first limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
cannot explain fears that develop gradually such as social phobias and cannot be traced back to a particular incident
83
What is the second limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
doesn't explain individual differences some people experience an incident which contributes to a phobia
84
What is the third limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
many suggest that evolution factors are imprints and these don't feature the 2 process model
85
What is the fourth limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation of phobias?
A limitation of the behaviourist approach as an explanation for phobias is that other approaches, such as the cognitive and psychodynamic approaches, offer alternative explanations that challenge the two-process model.
86
What are the two behaviourst treatments to phobias?
- systematic desensitisation
- flooding
87
What is flooding?
involves exposing the patient to their most feared stimulus first and without gradual build up of an anxiety hierarchy
involves the patient being exposed to their worst fear in one go, and encouraged to remain near their feared stimulus until their anxiety has worn off.
88
What is flooding also known as?
implosion theory
89
How does flooding affect the patient?
Flooding can be very frightening as the patient must face their fear immediately, but it may be enough to eliminate the fear in one session.
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How long can a session of flooding last?
A session of flooding can last up to 3 hours.
91
Why is flooding effective in reducing fear?
Flooding can be highly effective in reducing fear quickly because the patient begins to see the feared object or situation as harmless.
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Why does flooding work in treating phobias?
Flooding works because it prevents the patient from avoiding the feared stimulus, allowing them to confront it directly.
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How does flooding help break the conditioned association between the feared stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus?
When the patient is confronted with the feared stimulus during flooding, they see that the conditioned stimulus does not lead to the unconditioned stimulus, breaking the association and is harmless
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What happens to the conditioned response during flooding?
During flooding, the conditioned relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response is extinguished, reducing the fear response.
95
What is a research study that supports flooding?
Wessels research study
96
What was Wessels aim?
To test the effectiveness of flooding as a therapy for phobias
97
What was Wessels procedure?
Three different groups were given treatment:
Group 1 = prolonged real exposure to the feared object
Group 2 = Flooding in the imagination of the feared object
Group 3 = A combination of prolonged real exposure and flooding exposure
Wessels assists the participants are the beginning of treatment, during and after the end of treatment and at the follow up one month later.
98
What was Wessel assessing in his research study for flooding?
- measuring anxiety and avoidance on scaled
- by an independent observer
- carries out by the client
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What were the results of Wessels flooding study?
Flooding as effective in reducing symptoms of phobias
A combination of prolonged real exposure and imagination exposure/flooding (group 3) was the most effective treatment, followed by prolonged real exposure to the fear object (group one)
100
What did Wessel conclude about flooding?
Flooding can provide an effective therapy for clients with phobias. It is more effective if used as a combination of real and imagined exposure
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What is my first strength of flooding?
A strength of flooding as therapy for phobias is that it is a very quick and effective way to remove a phobia.
102
What is my second strength of flooding?
A strength of flooding as therapy for phobias is that its success supports the idea that phobias persist because the feared object is avoided in real life, preventing the extinction of the fear.
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What is my first limitation of flooding?
A limitation of flooding is that it is only suitable for certain types of phobias, such as those involving animals, and is less effective for others, like social phobias.
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What is my second limitation of flooding?
A limitation of flooding as therapy for phobias is that, despite informed consent, the high levels of anxiety experienced during the treatment raise ethical concerns
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What is my third limitation of flooding?
A further limitation of flooding, linked to the high anxiety it induces, is the issue of relapse rates. Even if the phobia is initially reduced or eliminated, there is a risk that the phobia may return or be replaced by a different one.
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What is systematic desensitisation?
gradually exposures to the feared stimulus in stages using a feared hierarchy while practicing relaxation techniques until the patient stop feelings persistent fear, the a desensitised to the stimuli
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What premise is systematic desensitisation is based on?
That two conflicting emotions fear and relaxation cannot occur at the same time.
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What is a fear hierarchy?
A list from the least to most feared stimulus
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What are the 3 steps of systematic desensitisation?
1. Patients are taught relaxation techniques
2. Patients are asked to create a fear hierarchy of least to most feared stimulus
3. The patient is exposed to the feared stimulus gradually in stages, ensuring that they stay relaxed at each stage.
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What are the relaxation techniques?
Breathing techniques or muscle relaxation or mental imagery such as imagining themselves in a calm place
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How is relaxation techniques beneficial for phobias?
They can remain calm and relaxed when they are exposed to the object
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What is an example of an anxiety hierarchy of fear?
Least feared would be a cartoon picture of a friendly dog and gradually the most feared would be a large ferocious dog in the park
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What is the 1st stage of systematic desensitisation?
patients are taught relaxation techniques to manage anxiety, such as deep breathing.
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What is the 2nd stage of systematic desensitisation?
the doctor and patient write a list that builds up in stages from the least to most fearful stimulus, which is called a fear hierarchy
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What is the 3rd stage of systematic desensitisation?
The patient is exposed to the feared stimulus gradually in stages, ensuring that they stay relaxed at each stage.
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Why does systematic desensitisation work?
confronts a person with a feared stimulus which prevents avoidance that usually maintains their phobia
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When the patient is confronted with the feared stimulus, and learns that it’s harmless…
the association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is extinguished, less likely to display the conditioned response
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Who conducted a research study for systematic desensitisation?
Lang
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What was Langs aim in the systematic desensitisation study?
To test the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation for snake phobias in a controlled experiment
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What was Langs method in the systematic desensitisation study?
Got participants with snake phobias and were divided just to two groups:
1. received systematic desensitisation
2. received not therapy
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What was Langs results in the systematic desensitisation study?
Those in group 1 showed less fear of snakes are systematic desensitisation than the control group 2. After a follow up at 6 months those in group 1 still joked a reduced fear of snakes compared to the control group
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What was Langs conclusion in the systematic desensitisation study?
desensitisation has an immediate effect and also a longer term effect in reducing fear for a specific phobia
123
What is VRET?
Virtual reality exposure therapy
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What is my first strength of systematic desensitisation?
A strength of systematic desensitisation is that it is straightforward to administer because the therapy is highly structured, making it easy to create a clear hierarchy of fear
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What is my second strength of systematic desensitisation?
A strength of systematic desensitisation is that it can be effective for treating specific phobias, such as a fear of spiders, where the patient gradually faces their fear and experiences changes in their behaviour.
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What is my first limitation of systematic desensitisation?
A limitation of systematic desensitisation is that patients may experience anxiety as they work through the hierarchy, and they might feel uncomfortable with the idea of dropping out.
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What is my second limitation of systematic desensitisation?
A limitation of systematic desensitisation is that there is a risk of relapse, with the phobia potentially returning if the patient has not fully adhered to the treatment instructions.
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What is depression?
a mental health condition characterised by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a loss of interest in activities that one used to enjoy
129
What are the 7 symptoms of major depression?
1. Low mood - when a person feels extremely sad and hopeless for a long period of time
2. loss of pleasure - when they stop enjoy doing things they used to love enjoy
3. Irrational negative beliefs.
4. Difficulty concentrating.
5. Social withdrawal
6. Change in sleep pattern
7. Change in appetite
130
What are 3 behavioural characteristics depression?
Activity levels = typically suffers have reduced levels of energy = lethargic and knock on effect tend to withdraw from work, education, social life, however the opposite can happen = psychomotor agitation
Sleep disruption = insomnia reduced sleep, premature waking, increased need for sleep
Aggression and self harm = irritable, verbally or physically aggressive, either towards others or themselves
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What is psychomotor agitation?
individuals cants stay still
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What are the 3 emotional characteristic of depression?
Lowered Mood = patients will often describe themselves as 'worthless' and 'empty'
Anger = sufferers tend to experience more negative emotions, they can experience frequent anger
Lowered self esteem = they like themselves les than usual (hating themselves)
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What is self esteem?
the emotional experience of how much we like ourselves
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What are the 3 cognitive characteristics of depression?
Poor concentration = may be unable to stick with tasks
Attending to + dwelling on the negative = pay attention to negative aspects of situation, glass half empty mindset
Absolutist thinking = most situations are not all good or all bad, a sufferer mat think it is all bad
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What does the cognitive explanation of depression look at?
Loos at the way a person thinks - depression relates to faulty thinking
136
How is major depression diagnosed?
Must have experience at least 5 of the symptoms for at least 2 weeks, and at least one of the emotional symptoms
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What did Beck believe about depression?
That people become depressed because the world is seen negatively through negative self schemes which dominate thinking
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As part of Becks negative triad, how can negative self schemes develop?
In childhood and adolescence and then continue to adulthood
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What is a manic episode?
When a person experiences a period of high mood, which lasts for at least one week
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What is manic depression?
When a person cycles between depressive episodes and manic episodes
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what is a depressive episode?
When a person experiences a period of low mood, which lasts for at least one week
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What is another name for manic depression?
Bipolar disorder
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In the cognitive approach to depression there are two different models to explain depression...
1. Becks negative triad
2. Ellis ABC model
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What did Ellis believe about depression?
That individuals struggling with depression mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness. He thought it was their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their unhappiness
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What is Ellis ABC Model?
A model to explain the cognitive process of experiencing negative event
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What are the 3 steps in Ellis ABS model?
Activating event
Beliefs
Consequences
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What is the activating event in Ellis ABC Model?
Something negative happens in the environment around you
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What is the belief in Ellis ABC Model?
You hold a belief about the activating event
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What are the consequences in Ellis ABC Model?
The consequences of the belief, you have an emotional response to your belief
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What is assumed by Ellis ABC model?
According to Ellis ABC model when an activating event happens everyone forms and belief and this forms a consequence, it when an activating event happens to a person with depression, according to ellis the beliefs they form are irrational and negative
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According to Ellis’ ABC model why do people experience the symptoms of depression?
people experience the symptoms of depression as a consequence of irrational negative beliefs.
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According to Ellis’ ABC model, depression is caused by?
depression is caused by irrational negative beliefs.
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According to Ellis’ ABC model, when a person with depression experiences a negative activating event...
they form beliefs about the event that are overly negative.
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What did Beck believe about depression?
Irrational negative beliefs cause depression, he categorised these irrational negative beliefs into three types of negative belief
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What is the first irrational negative belief category of Becks negative triad?
Negative view on self
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What is negative view on self example?
"I think I'm a failure"
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What is the second irrational negative belief category of Becks negative triad?
Negative views about the world
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What is negative view on the world example?
"The world is a cold selfish place"
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What is the third irrational negative belief category of Becks negative triad?
Negative views about the future
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What is a negative view about the future example?
"no one will every love me"
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According to Beck irrational negative beliefs are cause by...
a person having negative beliefs about themselves
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Who conducted a research study on the cognitive explanation of depression?
Boury et al
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What did Boury et al investigate about the cognitive explanation of depression?
He focus on the role of negative thought patterns and cognitive distortions. The researchers explored how individuals with depression tend to have persistent negative thoughts about themselves, their environment, and their future - often referred to as the cognitive triad.
These active automatic thoughts are believed to contribute to the onset and maintenance of depressive symptoms
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What are the key findings of Boury et al research study about the cognitive explanation of depression?
1. Negative cognitive triad
2. Cognitive distortions
3. Role of automatic thoughts
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what is Negative cognitive triad?
depressed individuals often exhibit a negative view of themselves, the world and the future which reinforces the depressive state
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what is Cognitive distortions?
The study found that individuals with depression frequently engage in cognitive distortions - irrational or exaggerated thought patters that contribute to negative thinking
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What is Role of automatic thoughts?
the research emphasised the importance of automatic negative thoughts, which are spontaneous and difficult to control, in the development and persistence of depression
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What was Becks aim in the cognitive explanation of depression research study?
Investigate schemas used by people with depression
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What was Becks method in the cognitive explanation of depression research study?
Used the dysfunctional attitude scale to compare people who were diagnosed with depression and those who were not. It is a scale with a number of statements to agree/disagree such as "people will think less of me if I made a mistake"
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What was Becks results in the cognitive explanation of depression research study?
People with depression scored higher on the scale showing that they thought more negatively
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What was Becks conclusion in the cognitive explanation of depression research study?
supports the idea that depressed people use negative schemas
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What is my first strength of the evaluation of the cognitive explanation of depression?
A strength of the cognitive explanation of depression is that it is supported by a substantial amount of research evidence, particularly regarding the concepts of faulty information processing, negative self-schemas, and the cognitive triad.
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What is my second strength of the evaluation of the cognitive explanation of depression?
A strength of the cognitive explanation of depression is that it has real-world applicability, particularly as it forms the basis of the highly successful cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).
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What is my first limitation of the evaluation of the cognitive explanation of depression?
A limitation of the cognitive explanation of depression is that it does not account for all aspects of the disorder, such as the experience of anger, hallucinations, or bizarre beliefs.
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What is my second limitation of the evaluation of the cognitive explanation of depression?
Another limitation of the cognitive explanation of depression is that it suggests irrational negative beliefs are the cause of depression. However, research shows that people with depression may not always have irrational beliefs.
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What is cognitive behaviour therapy?
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What is the first step in CBT?
An assessment where the patient and therapist Identifying negative beliefs to form a plan
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What is the second step in CBT?
Challenges the patients negative beliefs, identity goals for therapy
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What is the third step in CBT?
Work to change irrational negative thoughts, challenges him beliefs
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What is the fourth step in CBT?
the therapist and patient evaluate the evidence together in the next sessions, that challenge his irrational negative thoughts
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What are the 4 steps of CBT?
1) Identify negative beliefs
2) Challenge negative beliefs
3) Test their hypothesis
4) evaluate evidence
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What is the negative triad in Beck's cognitive therapy?
The negative triad involves negative thoughts about the world, the self, and the future. Beck's therapy challenges these negative thoughts to help change the patient's thinking patterns.
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What is Ellis's Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)?
REBT extends Beck’s model into the ABCDE model. It focuses on disputing irrational beliefs and replacing them with rational thoughts.
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What does D stand for in Ellis's ABCDE model?
D stands for dispute, where the therapist challenges the patient's irrational thoughts and encourages more rational conclusions, like revising for the exam.
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What does E stand for in Ellis's ABCDE model?
E stands for effect, where the new, rational belief emerges, such as "I can do well at college if I revise appropriately."
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What is the aim of REBT in terms of challenging thoughts?
The aim of REBT is to identify and dispute irrational thoughts, replacing them with more rational, positive thinking. For example, challenging beliefs like "I must be excellent in all respects, otherwise I am worthless."
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Who conducted the research study to support CBT?
Hollon et al
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What was Hollon et al's aim?
To compare effectiveness of cognitive therapy and drug therapy
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What was Hollon et al's method?
Investigated people with moderate to serve depression were given either drug therapy pr cognitive therapy. Those given cognitive therapy had treatment for 16 weeks. Both groups were follow up after one year
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What was Hollon et al's Results?
Relapse rates:
Cognitive therapy: 40%
Drug therapy: 45%
Placebo: 80%
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What was Hollon et al's conclusion?
Cognitive therapy is as effective as drug therapy for moderate to severe depression
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What is my first strength of the evaluation of cognitive treatment of depression?
A strength of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is that it is one of the most effective psychological treatments for moderate to severe depression, with fewer side effects compared to drug therapy.
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What is my second strength of the evaluation of cognitive treatment of depression?
A strength of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is that it can take place over a relatively short time period, typically involving one-hour sessions for around 16 weeks.
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What is my first limitation of the evaluation of cognitive treatment of depression?
A limitation of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is that it may not be suitable for all individuals, particularly those with severe depression or certain other mental health conditions.
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What is my second limitation of the evaluation of cognitive treatment of depression?
A limitation of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is that it primarily focuses on the present and future, which may not address some individuals’ needs to explore past experiences.
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What is OCD?
anxiety disorder characterised by persistent, intrusive, and distressing thoughts, images, or impulses (obsessions) that are often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) performed to reduce anxiety.
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What are the 3 behavioural characteristics of OCD?
Compulsions (repetitive feel compelled to repeat something)
Reduce anxiety = 10% of sufferers of OCD show the behaviour alone, most suffers manage anxiety by obsessions
Avoidance = attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it
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What are the 3 emotional characteristics of OCD?
anxiety and stress = unpleasant emotional experience due to the anxiety from compulsions and obsessions
accompanying depression = anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment, compulsive behaviour tends to bring some relief from anxiety
guilt = OCG involves negative emotions
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What are the 3 cognitive characteristics of OCD?
obsessive thoughts = occur over and over again which become unpleasant
cognitive strategies to deal with OCD = may help manage anxiety but can make a person seem abnormal to others
Excessive anxiety = aware their compulsion are not rational, if they believed they were mental disorders
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What are the 3 symptoms of OCD?
- having obsessions, which are disturbing, recurrent thoughts
- guilt and anxiety
- compulsions , which are repetitive actions that people feel urged to do
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What are compulsions?
repetitive actions that people feel urged to do, in order to reduce feeling of guilt and anxiety
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To get diagnosed with OCD a person needs to have...
all 3 symptoms
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What does the neural explanation of OCD focus on?
neurotransmitters and brain structures
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What do neural explanations suggest about OCD?
abnormal levels of neurotransmitters in particular serotonin and dopamine are implicated in OCD
particular regions of the brain, in particular the basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex are implicated in OCD
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What are the 2 particular neurotransmitters that are implicated in OCD?
reduction serotonin and increased dopamine
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What 2 regions of the brain are implicated in OCG?
Basal ganglia
Orbitofrontal cortex
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What does serotonin do?
regulates mood, so lower levels of serotonin are associated with mood disorders such as depression and OCD
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What is neurochemistry?
refers to the chemical processes occurring in the nervous system
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Where does support for the role of serotonin of OCD come from?
research examining antidepressants, which have found that drugs which increase the level of serotonin are effective in treating patients with OCD
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Is it high or low level of dopamine associated with OCD?
high levels of dopamine in particular relation to compulsive behaviours
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What does the orbitofrontal cortex do?
converts sensory information into thoughts and actions
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What supports that the orbitocortex has a correlation with OCD?
PET scans have found higher activity in the orbitofrontal cortex in patients with OCD
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The obritofrontal cortex can...
detect worrying stimuli in our environment and is involved in deciding how to deal with worrying stimuli.
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What is suggested about the orbitofrontal cortex?
heightened activity in the orbitofrontal cortex increases the conversion of sensory information to actions (behaviours) which result in compulsions
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What is the basal ganglia?
a brain region involved in multiple processes, including the coordination of movement
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What does the orbtiiofrontal cortex and the basal ganglia link neurally to OCD?
The basal ganglia sends inhibitory signals back to the orbitofrontal cortex about the worrying stimulus shut down
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What does the basal ganglia do?
monitors the outcome of actions
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When the signals sent from the basal ganglia to the orbitofrontal cortex are much weaker than usual, which of the following happens?
The orbitofrontal cortex is less inhibited than it should be.
The orbitofrontal cortex becomes hyperactive and generates the symptoms of OCD
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What is serotonin?
It is a neurotransmitter, which is released from the pre-synaptic terminal during synaptic transmission.
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Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, meaning that it causes
Inhibitory post-synaptic potentials to occur in post-synaptic neurons.
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If neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex are hyperactive…
signals in response to the worrying stimuli persist.
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According to the neural explanation of OCD, communication between the basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex is impaired, meaning that signals from the basal ganglia to the orbitofrontal cortex are weakened.
What effect does this have on neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex?
The neurons are hyperactive.
The neurons are less inhibited than usual.
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What is a case study supporting neural explanations for OCD?
Max et al
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What was Max et al's study?
Max et al. studied a girl who developed OCD after experiencing some brain damage.
Max et al. studied someone with brain damage in the basal ganglia.
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What were the findings of Max et al?
Found structural damage t the basal ganglia and this damage was causing her symptoms of OCD as the damage means the basal ganglia can't send signals to the orbitofrontal cortex
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What does Max et al conclude in his study?
suggests that structural damage to the basal ganglia can cause OCD, supporting the idea that disturbed communication between the basal ganglia and the orbtiofrontal cortex is the cause of OCD
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What are neuroimaging techniques?
Brain imaging techniques that allow us to look inside the brain and see different activation patterns.
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What is research evidence that supports there are neural mechanisms involved in OCD?
Saxena - reviewed studies of OCD that used OET scans and fMRI and MRI neuroimaging techniques to find consistent evidence of an association between the orbital frontal Cortez brain area and OCD symptoms
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What were the findings of Saxena's study?
Found that adults with OCD had increased activity in the orbitofrontal cortex compared to the health participants which supports the idea that hyperactivity of neurone in the orbitofrontal cortex causes OCD
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What is my first strength for the unreal explanation of OCD?
A strength of the neural explanation for OCD is that there is empirical evidence supporting the idea that brain activity, particularly in the orbitofrontal cortex, plays a key role in the development and symptoms of OCD.
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What is my first limitation for the unreal explanation of OCD?
A limitation of the neural explanation for OCD is that although drug therapy can relieve symptoms, this does not necessarily mean that a chemical imbalance is the original cause of the disorder.
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What is my second limitation for the unreal explanation of OCD?
A limitation of the neural explanation for OCD is that although there is evidence showing abnormal brain activity and neurotransmitter imbalances, these abnormalities may not necessarily be the cause of the disorder.
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What happens to the neuron's of people with OCD?
Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex are overactive in the brains of people with OCD.
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What happens to the levels of serotonin in the brain of people with OCD?
People with OCD have lower levels of serotonin in the orbitofrontal cortex.
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What is a gene?
A segment of DNA that controls the production of one protein.
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What is the process of passing down gene alleles from parent to child called?
inheritance
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What does the genetic explanation suggest about OCD?
That it involves a genetic predisposition and that individuals inherit specific genes which are linked to OCD and lead to a higher likelihood of OCD
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The influence of genes on behaviour is complex, because...
it is unlikely that just one gene is responsible for any given behaviour, as behaviour is more likely to be caused by a combination of lots of different genes.
environmental factors have a bigger impact on behaviour than on physical traits.
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according to this explanation there are certain alleles that can increase the risk of someone developing OCD
What are the two genes allele called that have been linked to OCD?
COMT gene and SERT gene
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According to the genetic explanation of OCD, there are multiple gene alleles that can contribute to developing OCD. If a person has more of these gene alleles, what happens to their chances of developing OCD?
it increases
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What does the genetic explanation of OCD say?
We can inherit OCD from our parents
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What is the SERT gene allele full name?
Serotonin Transporter gene
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What does the SERT gene control?
controls the level of serotonin
affects the transport of serotonin and can cause lower levels of serotonin,
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What type of neurotransmitter in serotonin?
an inhibitory
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As serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, it means that the post-synaptic potentials that serotonin cause in the post synaptic neuron are...
inhibitory
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What does the SERT gene produce?
re-uptake proteins that carry serotonin back into the presypantic membrane,
The more re-uptake proteins that are produced, the less serotonin is available in the synapse.
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The short allele produces less re-uptake protein. What happens when there is less re-uptake protein?
Less serotonin is taken up into the pre-synaptic terminal.
More serotonin is available in the synapse.
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What does having more serotonin present in the synapse do?
More inhibition of neural acitivty in the post synaptic neuron
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What does the short allele do?
- produces less re-uptake protein
- more serotonin available
- more inhibition of neural activity
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What does the long allele do?
- produces more re-uptake protein
- less serotonin available
- less inhibition of unreal activity
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What type of condition is OCD according to the genetic explanation?
a polygenic condition, why means that several genes are involved
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In twin studies, what is the concordance rate?
The percentage of pairs of twins that both share the same trait.
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In reference to genetic variation, what does it mean if there is a big difference between the concordance rates of monozygotic and dizygotic twins?
The bigger the difference in concordance rates between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, the more influence genetic variation has on that trait.
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What have researched used twin studies in OCD for?
To investigate how much genetics contributes to OCD development
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Who conducted a twin study for genetic explanation of OCD?
Billet et al. conducted a review of twin studies, to assess genetic inheritance of OCD.
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What were the findings in Billet et al's study?
Overall concordance rate of 68% for MZ twins, meaning that in 68% of cases both MZ twins had OCD
Overall concordance rate of 31% for DZ twins, meaning that in 31% of cases both DZ twins had OCD
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What could Billet et al. conclude from these results?
OCD is partially genetically inherited, because there is a large difference in concordance rates between monozygotic and dizygotic twins for OCD.
Billet et al. concluded that the large difference in concordance rates between monozygotic and dizygotic twins indicated OCD is partially inherited.
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Who conducted OCD in family studies?
Nestadt et al
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What was the aim of Nested el al study?
To investigate whether OCD is inherited using family concordance
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What was Nestadt et al's method?
Identified 80 patients with OCD and 343 of their close relatives and compared them with 73 control patients without mental illness and 300 of their close relatives
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What was Nestadt et al's findings?
12% of the experimental group had a relative who also had OCD. On the other hand, only 3% of the control group had a relative who had OCD.
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What does Nested et al's study conclude?
The researchers could conclude that OCD is likely to be partially inherited, because of the difference in the number of family members with OCD between the experimental and control group.
The researchers could conclude that if one person in a family has OCD, other members of the family are more likely to have OCD.
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What is my first strength for the evaluation of genetic explanation of OCD?
A strength of the genetic explanation of OCD is the supporting evidence from twin studies, which provide strong insight into the role of genetics in the development of the disorder.Billet et al. conducted a review of twin studies to assess the genetic inheritance of OCD.
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What is my second strength for the evaluation of genetic explanation of OCD?
A strength of the genetic explanation for OCD is that research supports the idea that the disorder is inherited, as shown by family concordance studies.
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What is my first limitation for the evaluation of genetic explanation of OCD?
A limitation of the genetic explanation for OCD is the difficulty in separating genetic influences from environmental factors, as both play a role in the development of the disorder.
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What is my second limitation for the evaluation of genetic explanation of OCD?
A limitation of both the genetic and neural explanations of OCD is that they do not fully account for the role of environmental factors, such as trauma, which can also contribute to the development of the disorder.
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What is one way to treat OCD?
Drug therapy
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What does drug therapy aim to do?
Aims to increase or decrease the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain or increase or decrease their activity
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What happens to serotonin levels of someone with OCD?
Suggest that OCD is thought to be the result of low levels of the serotonin in the brain.
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What type of anti-depressant drugs are used to treat OCD?
SSRI's selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitiors
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How do SSRI's work?
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What do anti-depressents do?
improve mood and reduce anxiety which is experience by patients with OCD
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What is one cause of reduced serotonin levels in people with OCD?
Carrying a long allele of the SERT gene, causing increased re-uptake of serotonin at the synapse.
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What is one potential cause of hyperactivity in the orbitofrontal cortex, in people with OCD?
A reduction in serotonin levels at the synapse, because serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
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What is one way to treat OCD?
increase levels of serotonin in the orbitofrontal using SSRI's
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What do SSRI's do?
Block the re-uptake of serotonin at the synapse
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How do SSRI's work?
SSRIs work when they block reuptake of serotonin.
This leads to more serotonin being available at the synapse.
This creates a decrease in neural activity in the orbitofrontal cortex.
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What are anti-anxiety drugs?
Benzodiazepines BZ's
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What is my first strength to support drug therapy in OCD?
A strength of drug therapy for OCD is that there is significant evidence supporting the effectiveness of SSRIs in reducing symptoms of the disorder.
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What is my second strength to support drug therapy in OCD?
A significant strength of drug therapy, particularly SSRIs, is its cost-effectiveness and accessibility compared to other treatments like cognitive therapy, which requires more time and resources.
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What is my first limitation to support drug therapy in OCD?
A limitation of the research into SSRIs for OCD treatment is that many studies only follow up patients for 3 to 4 months, meaning the long-term effects of the medication are not fully understood.
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What is my second limitation to support drug therapy in OCD?
A limitation of biological treatments for OCD, including SSRIs, is that they only suppress symptoms rather than address the root cause of the disorder, leading to the need for long-term medication use.
