research methods Flashcards
What is a independent variable
What you change
What is a dependant variable
What you measure
What is a extraneous variable
A variable that is not controlled and effects the study
What is a confounding variable
An extraneous variable that effects the results of the study so that the effect of the independent variable is not truly being seen
What is a situational variable
An extraneous variable present in the environment of the study
What are participant variables
Extraneous variables specific to the participants of an investigation, for example, mood, ability or personality
What is a standardised procedure
Where the procedure of a study is the same across all conditions
How do we control use of a standardized procedure
If the noise is at a certain level for one condition, keep it the same for the other conditions
What is counterbalancing
Where half of the participant group experience condition A then condition B, while other experience condition B then condition A
What is randomisation
When participants are randomly assigned to condition A or B as their first or second test condition
How do you control randomisation
A raffle
What is a single blind technique
When information about the study is withheld from the participants
How do you control single blind technique
In clinical trials, the participant will not know if they are given the real medication or a placebo
What is a double blind technique
When the aims of the study are withheld from both participants and researchers
How to control a double blind technique
A independent researcher is employed to conduct the research
What is a null hypothesis
A prediction that the result or outcome will find no effect or very little effect
Write null hypothesis according to looking for a difference and looking for a relationship
DIFFERENCE
There willl be no difference in the number of digits recalled whether participants listened to classical music or jazz. Any difference will be due to change
RELATIONSHIP
There will be no difference between time spent revising and percentage score on a test; any relationship change will be found due to chance
What is a alternative hypothesis
Prediction of the expected outcome of a study
Wat are two types of alternative hypothesis
Non directional and directional
What is a directional hypothesis
A hypothesis that predicts the directions the results will go in
Example of a directional hypothesis in terms of difference and relationship
DIFFERENCE
adults will recall more digits than children
RELATIONSHIP
There will be a negative correlation between self esteem and depression
Example of a non directional hypothesis in terms of difference and relationship
DIFFERENCE
There will be a difference in the number of digits recalled by adults of children
RELATIONSHIP
There will be a negative correlation between self- esteem and depression
What is a target population
The group of people being investigated in a study
What is random sampling technique
A technique used to gather a random sample of participants from the target population
What are strengths and weaknesses of random sampling
Strength
- generates a representative sample as each member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Weakness
- some may refuse to participate which leads to a less representative sample
What is stratified sampling
A technique that ensures subgroups of the target population are proportionally represented in a sample
What are strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling
Strengths
- useful if a small subgroup of the target population may be missed by using a random sampling technique and it ensures the sample is completely representative
Weaknesses
- timeconsuming and people may want to refuse leading to a sample error
What is volunteer sampling
A technique that asks for participants through an advertisement
What are strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling
Strengths
- minimal effort needed from researcher
Weaknesses
- less representative as not everyone may see the advert
What is opportunity sampling
Recruiting participants who are readily available at the time
What is example of opportunity sampling
Going into a public place and asking people to take part
What are strengths and weaknesses of opportunity sampling
Strength
- quickest and easiest
Weakness
- leads to biased sample as not everyone of the target population may be around at time of study
What is a research design
How participants are allocated to the conditions of a study
What are experimental designs
The name given to a research design when used in a experiment
What is a independent measure
Participants are split into groups with each group tested in one condition of. Atsudy
What are strengths and weaknesses of independent measures design
Strength
- no order effects as participants only take part in one condition of the study
Weakness
- may be individual differences in the groups
What are controlling problems of independent measure designs
Participants can be randomly located to each condition
What are strengths and weaknesses of repeated measure
Strength
- fewer participants- makes more economical
Weakness
- order effects mean that results may reflect practice or fatigue
What is a controlling problems of repeated measure
Order effects need to be controlled using counterbalancing or randomisation
What is repeated measure design
The same participants are all used in all conditions of a studt
What are matched pairs
Different participants are used in each condition of the study but are matched for likeness on important characteristics
What are strengths and weaknesses of matched pairs
Strengths
- fair comparisons can be made between the groups as they are equally matched
Weakness
- time consuming to match participants and not all characteristics can be equally matched
What is reliability
Consistency of an outcome
What is validity
Whether the test measures what was intented
What is internal validity
Whether the measures used in a test genuinely test what they were designed to test
What is external validity
Whether the findings are generalisable to the target population
What is reliability in sampling methods
If a sampling technique leads to a biased sample then the outcome of the research may not be relied upon to occur again, as it could differ if the study was replicated
What is reliability in experimental designs
In an independent measures design, participants differ between conditions, so there is variability between groups because of participant variables- lead to unreliable findings
What is validity in sampling methods
If a sample error occurs then the findings of the research are untrue of the target population - effects external validity of the results
What is validity in experimental designs
The way in which particpants are allocated to the conditions of a study, known as the experimental or research design, can affect validity of the findings
What is reliability is qualitative methods
- not easy to replicate
- limits generalisability of findings
What is validity in qualitative methods
The researcher can be very involved with the participant which results in researcher bias and investigatior effects and lack validity
What is validity in quantitative methods
Designed to get her facts and measure behaviour that can be applied to the target population which means that they produce data that is generalisable to otehrs
What is BPSCHRE
BPS code of human research ethics
What’s re the four key principles of BPS code
- respect for individuals
- scientific integrity. = scientists are to not claim any misleading findings
- social responsibility = scientists have a collective responsibility to society as well as to the participants
- maximising benefit and minimising harm
What is informed consent and how to deal with it
Agreement of participants to take part once they are fully aware of the aims, nature and intended outcome of a study
Given a consent form
What is deception and how to deal with it
Misleading or lying to participants
Given a debrief (participants are given full disclosure of the study)
What is confidentiality and how to deal with it
Not disclosing identity of participants
Keep participants records in a safe place and then destroy them after a while
What is right to withdraw and how to deal with it
Be able to leave the study
Shouldn’t be offered an incentive such as money to continue on
What is protection of participants and how to deal with it
Safeguarding participants against physical and psychological harm
Should Feel empathy
What is a laboratory experiment
A procedure staged in a artificial environment
What is a field experiment
A procedure staged in a naturalistic environment
What is a natural experiment
A study that examines a naturally occurring variable in a real life situation
What are strengths of a laboratory experiment
- most scientific because of high levels of control
- increases validity
What are strengths of a field experiment
- conducted in a natural environment
What are strengths of a natural experiment
- the environment in which participants are studied is real and naturalistic
What are weaknesses of a laboratory experiment
- conducted in a unnatural environment
- participants are invited to the experiment so may display demand characteristics
What are weaknesses of a field experiment
- not all extraneous variables can be controlled because it’s a real life experiment
What are weaknesses of a natural experiment
- extraneous variables are hard to control
What is a interview
A research method designed to gather self-reported information from participants
What is a structured interview
A set of pre set questions asked to a respondent
What is a semi-structured interview
A mix of pre-set questions and unprepared questions asked to a respondent
What is a unstructured interview
A free flowing conversation around a particular topic with a respondents
What are strengths of a interview
Structured interviews are easy to replicate as it’s the same questions and gather lots of information
What are weaknesses of interviews
Semi structured interviews are very time consuming
Unstructured interviews can’t be replicated as they don’t ask the same questions
What is a questionnaire
A self report technique designed to ask lots of people questions about a topic
What is a closed ended question
Questions with a fixed response
What is a open ended question
Questions with no fixed response
What are strengths of quetsionairres
- inexpensive way of gathering information from a sample
- ethical as people can choose to complete them or not
What are weaknesses of questionaires
Open ended questions are difficult to analyse as they produce qualitative data
What is a correlation
A way of analysing relationships between variables
What is a positive correlation
As one co variable increases the other co variable increases the
What is a negative correlation
As one co variable increases the other co variable decreases
What are strengths of a correlation
- cheaper and less time consuming
What are weaknesses of a correlation
Cause and effect can not be established
What is a case study
A study of a single person, group or event
What is a case study
A study of a single person, group or event
What are strengths of a case study
I- provides in depth information
What are weaknesses of a case study
Can not be repeated to check reliability of findings as every individual is different
- not applicable to everyone - not generalisable
What is observation
a research method that involves watching and recording behaviour
What is naturalistic observation
An observation conducted in an everyday environment where the behaviour studied is normally seen
Wha5 is a controlled/structured observation
An observation carried out in a laboratory or controlled environment
What is a overt observation
Participants know they are being observed as a part of the investigation
What is a covert observation
Participants are unaware that they are being observed
What is a participant observation
When a observer is involved in the group they are observing
What is a non participant observation
The observer watches and records people without being actively invokved
What’s re strengths of an observation
- reliability of observations can be checked with a inter rather reliablility
What are weaknesses of an observation
- lack validity
- unethical as no contest is given in covert observations
What is the median
The middle number
What is the mode
The Most common number in a set of numbers
What is primary data
Data collected directly for a specific research purpose
What is secondary data
Data used in a study that has already been collected often for a different purpose
What is qualitative data
Descriptive data
What is quantitative data
Data with numbers
What are ethical issues
Issues that cover working and living with other people
How does topic 1 development show ethical issues
According to the UNCRC (1989), children have the right to participate in decisions about themselves (participation rights), and it is this right that has led to involving children in research about them. Children also have the right to be protected (protection rights), which can be difficult when it comes to doing research, but they must be given that right. The BPS code to minimise harm and the ethical issue of protecting participants are key in this situation.
How does topic 2 memory show ethical issues
research can also be carried out within the NHS once the NHS Research Ethics Committee has approved it. While older research, such as Bartlett’s (1932) study and Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study, did not go through such stringent ethical scrutiny, current research must. However, memory experiments do not seem to affect participants strongly with regard to physical or psychological harm, and with a careful debrief they might be seen as ethical.
How does topic 3 psychological problems lead to ethical issues
Caspi et al. (2003) looked at stress and depression and linked these to genetic make-up. This can raise ethical issues because people cannot help or change their genetic make-up. Further to this, discovering problems with one’s genes can be very stressful and upsetting
How does neuropsychology link to ethical issues
issues can arise from the use of case studies where the individual is vulnerable from the brain damage that is being researched. In addition, showing that something results from someone’s nature can bring ethical responsibilities, such as responsibility for our actions Participants must be protected from stress and distress informed consent needs to be obtained. carefully from someone with damage to the brain.
How can social influence rise ethical issues
Participants must be protected from brutality and from knowing how far they themselves might go. Milgram
1963) got people to give what they thought were dangerous electric shocks to someone else. Beforehand, he asked people whether they thought anyone would Go so far as to seriously shock someone they did notknow. Nobody thought a participant would go to the maximum shock
Why are similarities of primary and secondary data
- Studies using primary and/or secondary data must adhere to ethical guidelines.
- Both primary and secondary data can be either qualitative or quantitative with associated strengths and weaknesses.
- Both primary and secondary data can yield numbers which can be analysed in a similar way.
What are differences of primary and secondary data
- Primary data can be more expensive and time-consuming to gather secondary data are already gathered so are cheaper
- There might be ethical difficulties in using secondary data from a study that had permission from the participants originally but not for the
‘second’ study.
What are similarities between qualitative and quantitative data
- Qualitative and quantitative data can come from the same method at the same time, such as using a questionnaire with both open and closed questions. They both answer the same research aim, in this case, and can back one another up to show validity (and reliability).
- Both qualitative and quantitative data must be gathered with care to avoid bias and misinterpretation.
What are differences between qualitative and quantitative data
- Qualitative data tends to come from small samples because of the depth required, whereas quantitative data can have larger samples.
- Qualitative data tends to come from individuals or small groups and focus on exploring a topic.
- Quantitative data look for patterns and focus more on differences between individuals rather than sticking to exploration.
