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research methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is the definition of variables?

A

any thing that can vary or change within an investigation

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2
Q

What are independent variables?

A

The variable that the researcher changes

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3
Q

What are dependent variables?

A

The varable that the researcher measures to investigate to see if the IV’s have affected it

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4
Q

What is operationalism?

A

Showing how variables will be measured (eg. km/h or cm or kg)

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5
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A clear and testable statement that states the relationship between variables in an investiagtion

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6
Q

What does a hypothesis include?

A

1) IV
2) DV
3) the relationship betwwen the IV and the DV

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7
Q

What are the types of hypothesis?

A

1) experimental / alternative
2) null

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8
Q

What is a experimental / alternative hypothesis?

A

There will be differences between the results

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9
Q

What are the types of experimental / alternative hypothesis?

A

1) Directional; clearly states the relationship (increases / decreases)
2) Non-directional; doesnt state relationship

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10
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

There is no difference between the results

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11
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Any variables apart frorm the independent variable that may have an effect on the dependent variable if not controlled so the researcher night not be able to figure out what truly caused the change in the dependent variable
-> where possible should be identified at the start of the study so the researcher can take steps to minimise its influence
-> doesnt vary systematially with the IV

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12
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

If the extraneous variables are not controlled, it affects the experiment and its overall results, becoming a confounding variable

-> unsure about the true source of changes

-> varies systematically with IV

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13
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Any cues from the researcher or from the research situtation that may be interpreted by particiapnts on how they should behave in this experimental situation
-> participant might change their behaviour to act in a way that they think is epected or overperform to please the experimenter or underperform to sabotage the results

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14
Q

What are investigatior effects?

A

Any effect of the investigator behaviour (concious or unconcious) on the research outcome such as leading questions, materials or informtion
-> may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of and interaction with participants during the research process

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15
Q

What is randomisation?

A

The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions

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16
Q

What is standardisation?

A

using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study (as far as possible be subjective to the same environment, information and experience)

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17
Q

What are the types of experiments?

A

1) laboratory
2) field
3) natural
4) quasi

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18
Q

What is laboratory experiment?

A

-conducted in highly controlled experiment
-doesn’t have to be in lab (can be in classrooom with weell controlled conditions)
-example: Migrams original obedience study (40 male participants were assessed in a lab)

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19
Q

What are some strengths of laboratory experiments?

A

high control over extraneous variables
-> any effect on DV is caused by IV
-> more certain about cause and effect
-> high internal validity

replication is possible
-> ensures that new extraneous variables arent introduced when repeating an experiment
-> vital to check whether results are valid but not just a one-off

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20
Q

What are some weaknesses of labouratory experiments?

A

-lacks generalisability
-> enviroment is artificial not like everyday life
-> participants might behave in unusual ways
-> low external validity

-risk in unnatural behaviour (demand behaviour)

-mundane realism -> not represented real life experience

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21
Q

What are field experiments?

A

IV is manipulated in a more natural and everyday setting to observe the effect on the DV in a natural environment

example; Bickman’s obedience study
confederates stood in the streets and asked passer-bys to perform tasks

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22
Q

What are some strengths of field experiments?

A

higher mundane realism
-> experiment is more natural

produce more valid and authentic behaviour
-> participants maybe unaware they are being studied
-> high ecological/ external validity

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23
Q

What are some weaknesses of field experiments?

A

loss of control of extraneous variables
-> cause and effect between IV and DV is more difficult to establish
-> precise replication is impossible

ethical issues
-> no consent of participants
-> might constitute an invasion of privacy

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24
Q

What are natural experiments?

A

researcher takes advantage of pre-existing independent variables (IV occurs naturally)
-> variable would have changed even the experimente wasnt intrested

example; Rutter’s study of Romanian orphans
children have been transmitted by experiences / suffered behavement

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25
Q

What are some strengths of natural experiments?

A

provide oppertunites for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons

high external / ecological validity
-> involve study of real life issues and problems

no demand characteristics

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26
Q

What are some weaknesses of natural experiment?

A

events only happen very rarely
-> reducing oppertunities for research
-> limit the scope for generalsing findings to similar situations

participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions
-> less sure whether IV or other variable affected the DV

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27
Q

What are quasi experiments?

A

An IV that is based on an pre-existing difference between groups which no one has manipulated (eg. age/gender)

example; anxiety levels of phobic and non-phobic patients
IV of “having phobia” would not have come about through any experimental manipulation

28
Q

What is a strength of quasi experiments?

A

carried under lab conditions
-> extranrous variables controlled
-> effects on DV is caused by IV
-> high ecological validity

29
Q

What is a weakeness of quasi experiments?

A

cannot randomly allocate participants to condition
-> less sure whether DV is affected by IV
-> extraneous variables might become confounding variables

demand characteristics might appear

30
Q

What are experimental designs?

A

How participants are used within an experiment depending on different conditions

31
Q

What are the types of experimental designs?

A

1) independent groups
2) repeated measures
3) matched pairs

32
Q

What are independent measures?

A

Two separate groups of participants experiencing two different conditions / levels of experiment

33
Q

What are some evaluations for independent groups?

A

+ order effects are not a problem (no demand characteristics) -> participants are less likely to guess the aims

-participants who occupy different groups arent the same -> effect on DV by individual differences or IV?

34
Q

What are repeated measures?

A

All participants experience both conditions within the experiment.

35
Q

What are some evaluations of repeated measures?

A

+ participant variables are controlled
+ fewer participants are needed

-order effects might arise (confounding variables) -> create boredom or fatigue -> deteroriate performance
-more likely participants will work out aim of study -> demand characteristics
-each participant has to at least do two tasks

36
Q

What are matched pairs?

A

Pairs of participants which are first matched on a variable / variables relevant to the experiment (or affect the DV)
-> then one member is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B

37
Q

What are some evaluations for matched pairs?

A

+ order effect and demand characteristics are not a problem as participants only take part in one single condition

-participants will never be matched exactly
-time consuming and expensive (less economical)

38
Q

What is random allocation?

A

the use of chance procedures in psychology experiments to ensure that each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given group

39
Q

What does random allocation involve?

A

tactics
-> eg. flipping a coin, drawing names out of a hat or assigning random numbers to participants when putting them into groups

40
Q

What are order effects?

A

Where a participant’s performance gets better because they have done a similar task before (practice effects) or gets worse because they get tired or bored (fatigue effects)

41
Q

What is needed to overcome order effects?

A

Counterbalancing
-> half do condition 1 then condition 2
-> half do condition 2 then condition 1
-> If the order effects happen after the first conditions, you still have a set of results from condition A and condition B

42
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Participants pick up clues from the situation / researcher (investigator effect) which allow them to work out what the researcher is investigating
-> can cause changes in behaviour as a result (consciously or sub-consciously)

43
Q

What is sampling?

A

The difference between the population and the sample

44
Q

What are participants?

A

Individuals within the sample

45
Q

What is target population?

A

A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest from which a smaller sample is drawn

46
Q

What is sample?

A

A group of people who takes part in a research which is drawn from a target population and presumed to be representative of that population (stands “fairly” for the population being studied)

47
Q

What is bias?

A

When certain groups might be over or underrepresented (eg. too many young people or too many of one ethic minority) within the sample is selected
-> limits the extent of generalisation

48
Q

What is generalisation?

A

The extent to which findings and conclusions can be broadly applied to the same population (made possible if the sample is representative of the population)

49
Q

What are some sampling methods?

A

1) Random
2) Systematic
3) Stratified
4) Oppertunity
5) Volunteer

50
Q

What is random sampling?

A

All members of target population have an equal chance of being selected

51
Q

What is the process of random sampling?

A

Compile list of members in target population -> assign a number to each -> sample is generated by lottery method (computer based randomiser or picking numbers from a hat)

52
Q

What are some evaluations of random sampling?

A

+ fairly representative as everyone has an equal chance of selection
+ no research bias as you have no control in the results

  • very difficult and time consuming to conduct
  • might not be representative of target population
53
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

The nth member of the target population is selected

54
Q

What is the process of systematic sampling?

A

Compile list of all members in target population (sampling frame) -> sampling system is nominated or determined randomly -> researcher works through sampling frame

55
Q

What are some evaluations of systematic sampling?

A

+ quick to do
+ avoids researcher bias as the researcher has little input once a selection system has been set up

  • may not be representative (highly unlikely due to random nature of selection)
56
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub groups within the target population / wider population

57
Q

What is the process of stratified sampling?

A

decide on strata which makes up the target population -> proportions needed for the sample to be representative -> participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling

58
Q

What are some evaluations of stratified sampling?

A

+ most representative of all the methods as subgroups are represented
+ researcher bias is avoided as the researcher has little control over who is selected
+ can be easily generalised

  • difficult and time consuming to conduct
  • impossible to represent every difference between participants -> not representative
59
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Select anyone who happens to be willing and available (an opportunity sample)

60
Q

What is the process of opportunity sampling?

A

Researcher asks whoever is around at the time of their study -> market research eg strangers on the streets

61
Q

What are some evaluations of opportunity sampling?

A

+ quick and convenient to do compared to random and stratified sampling
+ saves time and effort

-not representative -> cannot generalise findings with certainty
- high in researcher bias as researcher is in control of who is selected so might pick people who “fit” their experiment better

62
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Involves participants selecting themselves to be a part of a sample

63
Q

What is the process of volunteer sampling?

A

Researcher might place an advert on a noticeboard asking for participants or people might simply raise their hands to volunteer

64
Q

What are some evaluations of volunteer sampling?

A

+ easy to collate
+ requires minimum input
+ less time consuming

  • volunteering bias -> attract certain type of person (helpful? keen? curious?) -> affect how results are generalised
65
Q

What are graphical techniques and tables used for?

A

psychology (12 decks)

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