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faber-memory Flashcards

1
Q

What are the memory processes?

A

1) coding
2) storage
3) retrieval

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2
Q

What is coding?

A

changing information so that it can be stored

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3
Q

What is storage?

A

holding and maintaining information so that it can be found and used at a later date

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4
Q

What is retrevial?

A

bringing information from storage to be remembered and recalled

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5
Q

What are the two main types of memory store that James 1980 suggested?

A

1) short term memory (STM)
2) long term memory (LTM)

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6
Q

What is duration?

A

The length of time that the memory store holds information

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7
Q

What is capacity?

A

The amount of information that the memory store holds

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8
Q

STM (coding, duration, capacity)

A

coding; acoustic (sounds)
duration; 18-30 seconds
capacity; 5-9 items average

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9
Q

LTM (coding, duration, capacity)

A

coding; semantic (meaning)
duration; lifetime
capacity; unlimited

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10
Q

What is the key study for STM / LTM coding?

A

Baddeley (1996)

-presented participants with words that were;
1) acoustically similar (sounds - taught, naught)
2) semantically similar (meaning - huge, big, great, wide)
3) acoustically dissimmilar (foul, old, deep)
4) semantically dissimilar (pen, day, ring)

when short term memory was tested, less acoustically similar words were recalled because the memory store got confused by words with a similar sound -> we encode information in our short term memory acousticall (by sound)

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11
Q

What is a limitation of baddeley’s study?

A

used quite artificial stimuli rather than the meaningful material
-> the cautiousness of generalising findings has to be enhanced
-> the findings of the study has limited applications

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12
Q

What is the capacity study of STM by Jacob (1887)?

A

capacity; 5-9 iitems

limitations; conducting long time ago
-> lacked adquate control
-> extranrous variables have turned into confounding variables

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13
Q

What is the capacity study for STM by Miller (1956)?

A

made obervations of everyday life (things come in sevens)
-> 7+-2 = 5-9

limitation; overestimated the capacity of STM
-> cowan (2021) stated that the capacity of STM was actually only four chunks (not five to nine as miller states)

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14
Q

What is chunking?

A

grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunks

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15
Q

What is the duration study of STM?

A

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

each student was given a constant syllable in each trial (also known as triagram eg, YCG) to remember
-> also given a three digit number to count backwards (retection interval) within different times
-> aim to write out letters after 3, 6, 9, 12 ,15 ,18 seconds

shows that the duration of STM is short

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16
Q

What is a limitation of peterson and peterson’s study?

A

stimulus of material was artificial
-> suggests that this experiment does not reflect real life memory actvities
-> this study lacks external valdity

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17
Q

What is the duration study of LTM?

A

bahrick et al (1975)

studied 392 particiants from ohio america who were age 17 to 74 to recall names from highschool
1) with yearbook 2) free recaalal (without yearbook)

findings;
15 years after graduation -90% accurate
48 years after graduation - 70% accurate

-> LTM lasts a long time

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18
Q

What is a strength of bahrick et al’s study?

A

High external validity
-> real life validity activity were recordedand studied

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19
Q

What is a limitation of bahrick et al’s study?

A

extaneous variables were not controlled and became confounding variables
-> participants might have looked at their yearook and refreshed their memoeries over the years

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20
Q

Who stated the multi store model?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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21
Q

What is the multi store model?

A

stimulus from the environment

->

sensory register

-> (paying attention)

short term memory store (STM)

->rehersal
<-retrieval

long term memory store (LTM)

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22
Q

What is the coding, capacity and duration of the sensory register?

A

coding; iconic = visually & echoic = acoustically (sounds)
capacity; high (milions of receptors)
duration; less than half a second

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23
Q

What is the coding, capacity and duration of STM?

A

coding; acoustically
capacity; limited (5-9 items)
duratiion; lasts 18 - 30 secnds unless rehearsed

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24
Q

What is the coding, capacityand duration of LTM?

A

coding; semantically (meaning)
capacity; unlimited
duration; lasts up to a lifetime if rehearsed

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25
Q

What is a strength of the multi store model?

A

supporting research evidence for different meomory stores
-> baddeley found that we tend to mix up words that sound similar when using our STM but mix up words with similar meanings when using LTM (suggests that coding in STM is acoustic and coding in LTM is semantic)
-> supports the multi store model’s view that there are separate memory stores

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26
Q

What are some weaknesses of the multi store model?

A

1) there is more than one type of STM
-> amnesia (clinical condition): Shalice and Warrington (1970) found out a patient with amnesia had very bad short term memory when digits were read aloud to him but was much better when he could read the digits to himself
-> research shows that there must be at least one type of STM to process visual information and another to process auditory information

2) there is more than one type of rehearsal
-> Craik and Watkins; elabourative rehearsal needed for LTM but maintanence rehearsal which is described within the model only maintains in STM and doesn’t transfer information to LTM
-> another research model which cannot be explained by the model

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27
Q

What is the Murdock serial position effect?

A

The first and last items are better remembered than the middle within a series

First; primary effect - rehearsal - LTM
Last; recency effect - recent - STM

There are multiple memory stores found therefore this effect supports the multi store model

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28
Q

Who, when and why was the working memory model created?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
-> actually the STM could be sub divided into more areas of the brain
-> biggest weakness of the MSM was that it claimed that the STM and LTM were separate singular units that dealt with singular units with all memories of that type

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29
Q

What is the WMM?

A

input
-> sensory memory (decay)
-> (attention) central executive
1) -> episodic buffer
2) <-> visuo-spatial scratch pad
3) <-> phonological loop (articulatory control & phonological store)
-> long term memory

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30
Q

What is the use of central executive? (CE)

A

controls working memory by allocating resources and making decisions about what information should or should not be processed
- main component of WMM

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31
Q

What is the capacity of CE?

A

limited

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32
Q

What is the use of phonological loop? (PL)

A

deals with auditory information

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33
Q

What is the coding of the phonological loop?

A

Acoustic

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34
Q

What is the phonological loop subdivided into?

A

1) phonological store (temporary storage of verbal material - what you hear)
2) articulatory process (maintenance rehearsal)

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35
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A

Repeating sounds or words in a loop to keep them in working memory while they are needed

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36
Q

What is the use of visuo-spatial sketchpad? (VSS)

A

processes visual and spatial information

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37
Q

What is the capacity of VSS?

A

limited

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38
Q

What is the VSS subdivided into?

A

1) visual catche (storing)
2) inner scribe (manipulating)

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39
Q

What is the use of the episodic buffer? (EB)

A

integrates information processed in other subsystems

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40
Q

What is the episodic buffer linked with?

A

Long term memory

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41
Q

What is the capacity of the episodic buffer?

A

limited (for chunks)

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42
Q

What are three studies that support the working memory model?

A

1) baddeley
2) braver et-al
3) eyesenck and keane

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43
Q

What is braddeley’s study that supports the working memory model?

A

found that participants recalled shorter words better than longer ones (as predicted by the WMM)
-> phonological loop has limited capacity
-> word length effect will disappear if the participant is given a repetitive verbal task to perform at the same time over and over again out loud because the tasks uses articulatory process (short words no longer have an advantage because there is no more room to rehearse them then there is for any more longer words)

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44
Q

What is braver et-al’s study that supports the working memory model?

A

central executive is associated with a specific part of the brain
-> biologically based evidence of -different components handle different memory functions
-more brain activity in CE as there is greater demand placed upon it

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45
Q

What is the aim of eyesenck and keane’s study except that it supports the working memory model?

A

To investigate the existence of a phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad

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46
Q

What design does eyesenck and keane’s study use? (and what is the definition?)

A

Repeated measure
->the same participants participate in each independent variable condition

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47
Q

What is the method eyesenck and keane used in their study?

A

gave participants a series of tasks to complete
1) remember 8 words in 15 secs
2) -15 secs retention time
-“tick tock tick tock”
-draw front of house
3) recall

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48
Q

What were the results of eyesenck and keane’s study?

A

best performance: task 1 - articular loop was used to retain the words through rehearsing them

worst performance: task 2 - articular loop was used to complete the task

task 3 - no effect - visuo spatial sketchpad is used

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49
Q

What is the conclusion of eyesenck and keane’s study?

A

supports the working memory model because it shows that there are different components in STM

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50
Q

What are some strengths of the working memory model?

A

1) clinical evidence
case study KF: phonological loop is damaged but visuo-spatial sketchpad is still intact
->poor STM ability for verbal communication but could process visual information normally
-> supports the existence of the PL and VSS in different parts of the brain

2) Brain scan support - Braver et al (1997):
participants were given tasks to perform while they were having a brain scan
-> greater activity in left cortex which increases along with the difficulty of the task
-> demands of CE increases, it works harder

3) dual task performance - Baddeley (1975): supports existence of VSS

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51
Q

What are some weaknesses of the working memory model?

A

1) low validity:
evidence from brain damaged patients might not be reliable (cannot be replicated)
-> difficult to generalise findings

2) doesn’t explain role or state evidence of central executive (the most central part of the model)
-> central executive isn’t as important as the WMM states

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52
Q

What is the study that specified the different types of long term memory? and why?

A

Tulving (1972)
-> because he thought the multi store model presented a simplified view of LTM

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53
Q

What are the different types of LTM?

A

1) episodic
2) semantic
3) procedural

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54
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

ability to recall personal events (when the event occurred, people, places and behaviours involved) which might have happened to you or things that you have been told about

55
Q

What are some examples of episodic memory?

A

-recent visit to dentist
-psychology class yesterday
-breakfast in the morning
-what clothes were worn yesterday
-concert you last went to

56
Q

How often does episodic memory have to be retrieved? with or without effort?

A

Continuously with effort

57
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

knowledge of the world
-> includes facts and knowledge of what words and concepts mean (less personal) which is constantly added to
-> needs to be deliberately recalled

58
Q

What are some examples of semantic memory?

A

-grass is green
-taste of orange
-Paris is capital of france

59
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

memory for actions, skills, knowledge of how we do things
-> can be recalled without conscious or deliberate effort
-> depends on procedural memory

60
Q

What are some examples of procedural memory?

A

-how to swim
-how to ride a bike
-how to indicate left and right
-how to change gear

61
Q

What does it mean by declarative?

A
  • Can be verbalised
  • “knowing that”
  • episodic and semantic
62
Q

What does it mean by non-declarative?

A
  • difficult to be verbalised
  • “knowing how”
  • procedural
63
Q

What does it mean by being time stamped?

A

When the event occurred

64
Q

conclusion of the types of LTM

A

1) episodic
- time stamped
- declarative

2) semantic
- not time stamped
- declarative

3) procedural
- not time stamped
- non declarative

65
Q

What are some strengths towards the different types of LTM?

A

1) clinical evidence -> HM and Clive wearing: consequences of amnesia - episodic memory was severely impaired but semantic memory was unaffected

2) neuroimaging evidence -> American studies: pet scans while performing memory tasks - episodic (right) semantic (left) prefrontal cortex)

3) real life applications -> Bellerville: episodic memory could be improved in old people who had mid cognitive impairment (trained performed better than controlled)

66
Q

What are some criticisms towards the different types of LTM?

A

1) types of LTM
-> Cohen and Squire: two? declarative and non-declarative
-> Tulving: three?
episodic / semantic / procedural

2) criticisms of clinical evidence
(Wearing and Molaison) due to lack of control in extraneous variables towards studying people’s brain injuries (severeness?)
-> validity? low

67
Q

What is the interference theory of forgetting?

A

When forgetting takes place when two pieces if similar information conflicts with each other resulting in forgetting one or both pieces of information

68
Q

What are the two types of interference?

A

1) proactive
2) retroactive

69
Q

What is proactive forgetting?

A

Previous learning makes it difficult to retain new information

70
Q

What is retroactive forgetting?

A

Newly learnt information makes it difficult to recall old memories

71
Q

What is the procedure of McGeoch and Mcdonalds study (1931)?

A

Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy

Then they learned a new list (different types of- 6 groups)
1. synonyms
2. antonyms
3. unrelated words
4. nonsense syllables
5. three digit numbers
6. no new list created

72
Q

Findings of Mcgeoch and Mcdonald’s study?

A

when participants recalled the original list of words, their performance depended on the nature of the second list

-the most similar material (synonym) produced the worst recall

-interference is the strongest when memories are similar

73
Q

What are some strengths of interference?

A
  • evidence from lab studies (eg. mcgeocg & mcdonald)
    >control extraneous variables n reduce effect by irrelevant influences
    >high internal validity
    >”one of the most demonstrated findings in the whole of psychology”
  • real life studies
    >baddeley and hitch (1977) rugby players and teams they played with
    >credible
74
Q

What are some weaknesses of interference?

A
  • artificial material
    >lack real life applications (only list of contents not info from everyday life - faces, birthday, recipes)
    >ecological validity
  • time between learning
    >only a short amount of time is provided for remembering in lab then recalling but is that the case in real life
  • hard to be specific if it was interference or decay or displacement
75
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A

A form of forgetting which occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory
-> the memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided

76
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

Endel Tulving (1983): renewed research into retrieval failure and discovered a constant pattern to the findings

-> If a cue is to help recall information, it has to be present during encoding (when we learn the material) and at retrieval (when we recall the material)

-> if the cues are absent at either times, forgetting occurs

77
Q

What are retrieval cues?

A

A “trigger” of information that allows us to access a memory

-> might be meaningful or might or might be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning

-> might be external (environmental context) or internal (mood / degree of drunkness)

78
Q

How does retrieval failure argue that information is forgotten?

A

When information is initially placed in memory, associated with cues stored at the same time

-> if these cues are not available at recall, it may make it appear as you have forgotten the memory which is actually retrieval failure (not being to access memories that are there)

79
Q

What is context dependent forgetting?

A

Memory performance is reduced when an individual’s performance differs from encoding to retrieval than if the two environments were the same

80
Q

What is Godden and Baddeley’s study? (1975)

A

Divers learnt a list of words either underwater or on land and then were asked to recall the words either underwater or on land

-> this created four conditions: 1) learn on land + recall on land
2) learn on land + recall underwater
3) learn underwater + recall on land
4) learn underwater + recall underwater

81
Q

What does Godden and Baddeley’s study show about context?

A

In two of these conditions, the environment contexts of learning and recall were the same, whereas the other two did not.

-> accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions as the external cues were available at learning from the ones at recall which led to retrieval failure

82
Q

What is state dependant forgetting?

A

Forgettng occurs because the emotional or physical state at recall is different to that of the time of learning

83
Q

What is Carter and Cassady’s study?

A

Gave anti histamine drugs (for treating hay fever) to their participants which had an mild sedative effect making them slightly drowsy -> creates an internal physiological state different from the normal state of being awake and alert
-> participants had to learn a list of words or passages of prose and then recall the information under four conditions;
1. learning on drug + recall on drug
2. learning on drug + recall when not on drug
3. learning when not on drug + recall on drug
4. learning when not on drug + recall when not on drug

84
Q

What did Carter and Cassady’s study show about state dependent forgetting?

A

In the conditions where there was a mismatch between the internal state when learning and recalling, performance was slightly worse
-> when cues are absent (more drowsy), there is more forgetting

85
Q

What are some evaluations of retrieval failure?

A

+ supporting evidence
-> Godden and Baddeley & Carter and Cassady
-> increases internal validity

  • lack real life application
    -> artificial research
    -> low validity
  • context effects are actually not very strong (Baddeley)
    -> differences have to be huge for an effect to be seen
    -> real life applications dont really explain forgetting
  • encoding specifcity principle cannot be tested
    -> all of them are assumptions
    -> subjective
86
Q

What is eyewitness testimony?

A

What happens when a person witnesses a crime (accident or other legally important events) and later gets called for police interviews or gets up on the stand in court to recall details of the witnessed event
-> needs to be as accurate as possible

87
Q

What factors can EWT be affected by?

A

1) anxiety
2) leading questions
3) post event discussions

88
Q

What is anxiety?

A
  • state of emotional and physical arousal
  • normal reaction to stressful situations
89
Q

What emotional effects does anxiety have?

A
  • worried thoughts
  • feeling of tension
90
Q

What physical effects does anxiety have?

A
  • increased heart rate
  • sweatness
91
Q

What is the Yerkes - Dodson law?

A

The relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an “Inverted U”
-> performance increases with stress but only to a point where it decreases drastically afterwards

92
Q

What is the study of Bacher (1983)?

A

-applied the Yerkes - Dodson law to eyewitness testimony
- lower levels of anxiety produce lower levels of anxiety
- memory becomes more accurate as the level of anxiety is increased
- when the optimum level of anxiety is reached, the point of maximum accuracy is also reached
- If an eyewitness experiences more stress than what they can withstand, then their recall of the event suffers a drastic decline

93
Q

How does anxiety have a negative effect on recall?

A
  • creates physiological arousal in the body
    -> prevents us from paying attention to important cues
    -> recall becomes worse
  • effect of weapons
    -> create anxiety
    -> affect accuracy of recall of witness
94
Q

What is the study that shows that anxiety has a negative effect on recall?

A

Johnson and Scott (1976)

95
Q

What is the procedure of Johnson and Scott’s study?

A
  • participants were led to a waiting room hearing an arguement in the next room although they knew they were going to take part in a lab experiment
  • low anxiety condition: man holding pen with grease on hand walked through the waiting area
  • high anxiety condition: same heated arguement but with the sound of glass breaking and a man walked out of the room holding a paper knife covered with blood
96
Q

What are the findings of Johnson and Scott’s study and what theory does it support?

A
  • participants picked out the man from a set of 50 photos: 49% of the participants who had seen the man carrying he pen were able to identify him whereas only 33% of the participants who had see the man holding the knife with blood was successful
  • tunnel theory: the witness’s attention narrows to focus on the weapon since it is a source of anxiety as it could cause harm so they are more likely to forget the person carrying it
97
Q

How does anxiety have a positive effect on recall?

A
  • the stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates the anxiety through physiological arousal within the body
  • the fight or flight response is triggered
    -> increases awareness
    -> improves memory of event
    -> because we become more aware of cues
98
Q

Which study shows that anxiety has a positive effect on recall?

A

Yuile and Cutshall (1986)

99
Q

What is the procedure of Yuile and Cutshall’s study?

A
  • real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canda
  • the shop owner shot the theif dead
  • 21 witnesses and 13 agreed to take part in the study
  • interviews were held four to five months after the accident and were compared with the original police interviews at the time of shooting
  • accuracy = determined by number of details
  • witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they felt at the time (7 point scale) and if they had any emotional poblems (eg. sleeplessness) since the event
100
Q

What are the findings of Yuile and Cutshall’s study?

A
  • witnesses were very acurrate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount of accuracy after five months although some details were les accurate (eg. colour of items / age / weight / height estimates)
  • participants who repeated the highest stress were the most accurate (about 88% compared to 75% for the less stressed group)
101
Q

What are some evaluations on anxiety affecting recall?

A
  • weapon focus effect might be irrelavent
    -> Johnson and Scott’s study might test surprise compared to anxiety (the reason participants would focus on weapon was being surprised instead of being scared)
    -> Pickel (1998); experiment using scissors, handgun, wallet or raw chicken in the hand held items in a hair dressing salon video (scissors: low unusualness) - eyewitness acuracy: power in high unusualness conditions (chicken or headgun)
  • field studies can lack control
    -> interviews of real eye witneses might happen some time after the event
    -> all sorts of things might have happend that the researcher cannot control (eg. post event discussions / accounts in the meida / effects of interviews…)
    -> extranrous variables may be responsible for the accuracy of recall ( effects of anxiety might be overwhelmed by other factors which are impossible to assess by the time participants are interviewed
  • ethical issues
    -> unethical to create anxiety or psychological harm purely for the purpose of research
    -> real life studies are beneficial as psychologists interview people who have already witnessed a real life event so there is no need to create one
    -> what is the need of these researches?
  • demand characteristics
    -> most lab studies show participants a filmed (usually staged) crime
    -> most participants will be aware they are watching a filmed crime scene for a reason to do with the study so they might work out themselves what questions might be asked
  • cannot truly define and accurately anxiety
    -> there are many elements of anxiety eg. cognitive, behavioural, emotional and physical
102
Q

What is a leading question?

A

A question which suggests a certain answer - eg. arent they / isnt it

103
Q

What study supports the effect that misleading information has on eyewitness testimony?

A

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

104
Q

What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

A

To examine the effect of leading questions

105
Q

How many participants were there in Loftus and Palmer’s study and how many groups were they split into?

A

45 American students
-> five groups of nine

106
Q

What is the procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

A

All participants watched a video of a car crash
-> asked a specific question about the speed of the cars
-> the verb used in the question was manipulated
“How fast were the cars going when they smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted with each other?”

107
Q

What are the findings of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

A

The more exaggerated the verb is, the higher the average mean speed estimates (mph) is.

Smashed: 40.5
Collided: 39.3
Bumped: 38.1
Hit: 34.0
Contacted: 31.8

108
Q

What type of experimental design was Loftus and Palmer’s study and what is a strength of this?

A

Independent group designs
->strength: reduces order effects as participants are less likely to guess the aim of the study therefore wont overperform or underperform on purpose so the validity increases

109
Q

What is a strength of Loftus and Palmer’s study ?

A

+ application to criminal justice system
-> Loftus and Palmer’s study highlights the danger of misleading information as one could already affect the accuracy of EWT
-> ensures that courtrooms operate fairly so innocent people are not convicted of crimes they did not commit based on inaccurate eyewitness

110
Q

What is a weakness of Loftus and Palmer’s study ?

A
  • lacks population validity
    -> the sample is only conducted with 45 American students (people from other nationalities or age group might not have the same response)
    -> the sample or responses might be culturally biased and cannot be generalised as it ignores individual differences
111
Q

What is a weakness of Loftus and Palmer’s study but with a counter argument?

A
  • deceived their participants are didn’t adhere to the BPS code of ethics
    -> because Loftus and Palmer did not inform their participants the true aim of their research

+ deception was necessary to obtain valid results and avoid demand characteristics
-> deception in this study was a strength to ensure the collection of valid data to further our understanding into the effects of misleading information on the accuracy of EWT when it was unlikely that any participants were harmed and all were debriefed after the study ended

112
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

when co-witnesses to c crime discuss it with each other
-> their eye witness testimonies becomes contaminated as they might contaminate (mis)information from other witnesses with their own

113
Q

What study supports the effect that post event discussion has on eyewitness testimony?

A

Gabbert et al (2003)

114
Q

What type of experimental design was Gabbert et al’s study?

A

Matched pairs

115
Q

What are the procedures of Gabbert et al’s study?

A

Each participant watched a video of the same crime scene but filmed from different points of view
-> each participants could see elements in the event that the other could not (eg. only one participant could see the title of a book held by a young woman)
-> Experimental group: participants discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall

116
Q

What are the findings of Gabbert et al’s study?

A

71% of the participants in the experimental group mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video but picked up in the discussion
-> control group: 0%

117
Q

What is the conclusion of Gabbert et al’s study?

A

MEMORY CONFORMITY: witnesses often go along with each other, either to gain social approval or because they believe that the other witnesses were right and they were wrong

118
Q

What are some evaluations for Gabbert et al’s study?

A
  • artificial task
    -> participants watch film clips / videos of the crime scene which is much different from witnessing a real accident as they lack the stress and anxiety that a real accident would have caused to the eyewitness
    -> because there is evidence that emotions and anxiety can have influence on memory and the accuracy of EWT, this study might lack external validity, be unreliable and cannot be generalised
  • Age affecting eye witness
    -> people in age groups 18-25 are more accurate that people in age group 55-78
    -> research studies tend to identify younger people as their target - some age groups appear less accurate to the results
  • age bias: all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own or similar age group
119
Q

What is cognitive interview?

A

Method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories

120
Q

What is cognitive interview based on?

A

Well established psychological knowledge of human memory

121
Q

What are the four techniques of cognitive interview?

A
  1. Report everything
  2. Reinstate the context
  3. Reverse the order
  4. Change perspective
122
Q

What are some details of reporting everything?

A

Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail although it might be irrelevant or the witness might be unconfident as it might trigger important cues or memories

123
Q

What are some details of reinstating the context?

A

Witnesses should return to the original crime scene “in their mind” and imagine the environment (eg. the weather) and their emotions
-> related to context dependent forgetting

124
Q

What are some details of reversing the order?

A

Events should be recalled from a different chronological order to the original sequence (eg from back to beginning or from middle to beginning)

-> to prevent people from expectations of how events must have happened rather than the actual event

-> prevents dishonesty as it is harder for people to produce an untruthful account if it is reversed

125
Q

What are some details of reversing the order?

A

Events should be recalled from a different chronological order to the original sequence (eg from back to beginning or from middle to beginning)

-> to prevent people from expectations of how events must have happened rather than the actual event

-> prevents dishonesty as it is harder for people to produce an untruthful account if it is reversed

126
Q

What are some details of changing perspective?

A

Witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspective to disrupt effects of expectations and schemas (generate expectations) or recall

127
Q

What is the enhanced cognitive interview?

A

Development of some additional elements of the cognitive interview to focus on the dynamic of the interaction

128
Q

What is the study related to cognitive interview?

A

Fisher et al

129
Q

What is the aim of fisher et al’s study?

A

To test the validity of cognitive interview

130
Q

What was the procedure of fisher et el’s study?

A

A group of police officers were trained to use cognitive interview (experimental group) and the other half used normal interviewing techniques (control group)
-> Both groups carried out their interview techniques with the same person - in the second interview, the participants used cognitive interview

131
Q

What was different in enhanced cognitive interviews?

A
  • eye contact was established
  • eyewitness anxiety was reduced
  • distractions were minimised
    -witness was requested to speak slowly
  • open ended questions were asked
132
Q

What was the conclusion of of fisher et el’s study?

A

In the cognitive interview, 47% more facts to the relating event was obtained whereas there was less recall of facts in the control group (normal interviews)

133
Q

What is an advantage for cognitive interview?

A

+ support of effectiveness
-> meta analysis by Kohnken et al combined data from 50 studies which constantly provided more correct information than the standard interviews used by the police
-> implies the real practical benefits of the police using enhanced cognitive interview
-> beneficial to society as a whole as less people will be prosecuted wrongly and more crimminals will be arrested

134
Q

What are some disadvantages for cognitive interview?

A
  • Creates an increase in inaccurate information
    -> Kohnken et al: 8% increase of correct information but also a 61% increase of incorrect information (fake positives) when the enhanced cognitive interview was compared to a standard interview
    -> risk of wrong details being provided might also increase
  • Time consuming
    -> police might be reluctant to use cognitive interview as it takes way more time than standard police interviews (more time is needed for the witness to relax)
    -> also requires special training
    -> unlikely that the proper version of cognitive interview is used in everyday life

psychology (14 decks)

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