Research Methods Flashcards
What is an aim?
The intent of a study
What is a hypothesis?
What you think you are likely to find out
What does operationalising a variable mean?
Defining a variable so that it is easy to understand and easily measured
What is a Pilot Study?
A small scale study conducted before the actual study to find issues that need to be changed
What is a random sample ?
A sample where every member has the same chance of being selected
What are some evaluation points for using a random sample?
Positive-no bias, not time-consuming
Negative-not likely to be representative
What is a systematic / quasi-random sampling method ?
Participants names are out into a list and every nth person is selected
What are some evaluation points of using systematic/quasi-random sampling ?
Positive-efficient and free from bias
Negative-not likely to be representative
What is a stratified sample ?
Breaking the population into groups and take a proportional sample reflecting the population
What are some evaluation points of using stratified sampling ?
Positive-representative
Negative-more time consuming than other sampling methods
What is quota sampling ?
Using a stratified method but select the individual participants using an opportunity sample rather than a random sample
What are some evaluation points of using a quota sampling method ?
Positive-representative
Negative-biased and time consuming
What is cluster sampling ?
Selecting a geographical area and take a random or stratified sample from people in that area
What are some evaluation points of using a cluster sampling method ?
Positive-representative of the area
Negative-may not be representative of larger areas
What is snowball sampling ?
Building a rapport with one participant and asking them to get more people to participate
What are some evaluation points of using snowball sampling ?
Positive-can get access to difficult groups such as criminals
Negative-not representative,small sample sizes
What is an opportunity sampling method ?
Asking people who are available at the time of the study to participate in the study
What are some evaluation points of using opportunity sampling ?
Positive-easy and not time-consuming
Negative-not representative, biased
What is volunteer sampling ?
Posting an advert and those who respond are participants in the study
What are some evaluation points of using volunteer sampling ?
Positive-convenient
Negative-not representative
What is primary data ?
Data collected by the researcher themselves for the purpose of their study
What are some advantages of using primary data ?
-specific to the study
-can use the format that is right for the overall study eg quantitative or qualitative
-higher validity
What are some disadvantages of using primary data ?
-could include bias
-time consuming
What is secondary data ?
Data that has been previously collected by another researcher for the purpose of a previous study
What are some advantages of using secondary data ?
-Quick and easy to access
-Less likely to be bias
-Allows for comparisons to be made from different pieces of research
What are some disadvantages of using secondary data ?
-It is not specific to the study that you are conducting
-It may not be valid
What is quantitative data ?
Data that is numerical e.g. percentages
What are some advantages of using quantitative data?
-It is objective
-It is easy to compare to other data to find patterns and trends
What are some disadvantages of using quantitative data?
-It is not in depth
-It does not provide causation to the trends identified
What is qualitative data ?
Data that is not in the form of numbers
e.g. Newspaper articles
What are some advantages of using qualitative data ?
-It is in depth
-It has more details about the information gathered
What are some disadvantages of using qualitative data ?
-It is subjective
-It is not as easy to compare to previous or future studies
What is meant by a practical consideration ?
Considerations that need to be made involving how the research is going to take place and whether it will be possible to conduct
What is meant by an ethical consideration ?
Considerations that have to be made about the morality of the research and whether it should or shouldn’t be done
What is meant by a theoretical consideration ?
Choosing the right method to gather data that correlates with whether the researcher is a positivist or an interpretivist
What are some examples of practical issues ?
Time, Cost, Funding, Personal skills and characteristics, Subject matter and Research opportunity
Why is time seen as a practical issue ?
Different methods might take more time to complete than the researcher has this is often found in methods such as interviews and longitudinal studies
Why is cost seen as a practical issue ?
The longer a method takes the more it costs this is due to factors such as having to pay for staff and resources, staff training for methods such as interviews also have a high cost
Why is funding seen as a practical issue ?
If the research is being funded it may limit the flexibility of the research or the methods that could be used, funding could also be cut or may force the research in a specific direction
Why are personal skills and characteristics seen as a practical issue ?
It may be more difficult to build a rapport with certain groups based on your age, gender and ethnicity
Why is subject matter seen as a practical issue ?
The method chosen has to revolve around the subject matter for example an observation could not be used to study domestic violence, unstructured interviews would be a better method however it may not suit the researcher
Why is research opportunity seen as a practical issue ?
Some groups may be more difficult to access due to a gatekeeper such as studying education within primary schools
What is meant by consent ?
Making sure that participants give permission to be part of the study
What is meant by confidentiality ?
Making sure that the participants’ information is kept secure and not shared without consent
What is meant by deception ?
When a participant is not told the true aim of the study, or they are being mislead
What is meant by protection from harm ?
Making sure that participants don’t experience physical or psychological harm due to the study
What is meant by illegality ?
When the law is broken during the study
What studies can be used as examples of studies with ethical issues ?
Milgram - shock experiment
Bandura - the bobo doll
Rosenthall and Jacobson - Self fulfilling prophecy
Humphreys - Tea room trade
Outline the procedure of Milgrams shock experiment
The participants were told to act as teachers and shock the learners ( a confederate/actor ) every time they got a question wrong
Outline the ethical issues with Milgram’s shock experiment
Deception-participants were not told that the learners were confederates and they were not told that the electric shocks were fake
Protection from harm-the participants experienced psychological harm during the study they showed signs of distress in extereme cases participants experienced seizures
Outline the procedure of Bandura’s bobo doll study
Half of the children watched an adult playing with the bobo doll violently and the other half watched “normal” behaviour towards the bobo doll, the children were then put into a room full of toys and told to play, the group who were shown the violent behaviour copied the adult
Outline the ethical issues with Bandura’s bobo doll study
deception-the children were unaware that they were taking part in a study
consent-the children were unable to give informed consent due to their age
Outline the procedure of Rosenthall and Jacobson’s study
They went to a primary school and picked a number of students at random and told the teachers that they were going to be high achievers, they returned after a year and found that these students had made more progress due to teacher labeling
Outline the ethical issues with Rosenthall and Jacobson’s study
consent-the children were unable to give informed consent sue to their age and the teachers were unaware they were being studied
deception-neither the students or the teachers were told that they were being studied on the effects of teacher labeling
Outline the procedure of Humphreys tea room trade study
He befriended participants in public bathrooms and took their licence plates number, he then went to their homes and conducted an interview
Outline the ethical issues with Humphrey’s tea room trade study
deception-the participants were not told they were in a study or that the person they befriended was an interviewer
protection from harm-the participants were put in a stressful situation during the interview
consent-the participants were not asked if they gave consent to be involved in a study
Confidentiality-Humphreys failed to keep all of their data confidential
What is meant by validity ?
How far does the study give a true picture of the subject being studied
What is meant by a study being representative ?
Does the sample the study is conducted on reflect wider society
What is meant by generalisability ?
Can assumptions be made on wider society based on the results of the study
What is meant by reliability ?
Whether the research can be repeated and produce the same results
What is meant by objectivity ?
Making sure that the researchers values and beliefs do not have an influence on the research
What is triangulation ?
When a variety of methods are using during the research process
What is meant by subjectivity ?
Allowing the researchers personal values and beliefs to have an impact on the research
What do positivists value in research ?
Objectivity, reliability and quantitative data
What do interpretivists value in research ?
Finding meanings and motives, validity and qualitative data
What are some ways in which questionaires can be sent out ?
-Postal
-Online
-Email
-Written
-By phone
-Face to face
What are some common faults found in the way questionaires are written ?
-Questions are too open or not well focused
-Categories overlap
-Too reliant on the participants memory
-Questions are invasive
-Categories are subjective ( e.g. often, sometimes, etc )
-Double-barreling questions
-Questions are leading
What is meant by an open ended question ?
Where the question isn’t structured so that the participant is free to answer as they want often in a long answer format
What is meant by a closed ended question ?
Where the participant is asked to give a short answer often in the form of multiple choice questions
What type of questionaire is preferred by interpetivists ?
Open ended
What type of questionaire is preferred by positivists ?
Closed ended
What type of data is often produced by open ended questions ?
Qualitative data
What type of data is often produced by closed ended questions ?
Quantitative data
What are some advantages of using postal questionaires ?
-Large sample size
-Easy to distribute
-Quicker than other methods
What are some disadvantages of using postal questionaires ?
-Low response rate
-May not be representative if only sending to a certain area
What are the 4 types of interview ?
-Structured
-Semi-structured
-Unstructured
-Group
What is a structured interview ?
A formal interview where the interviewer has a list of closed ended questions to ask the participant, it produced quantitative data
What is a semi-structured interview ?
The interviewer can explain the questions and probe for longer answers, it contains both open and closed ended questions
What is an unstructured interview ?
An informal interview containing open ended questions which can be changed by the interviewer as it is not standardised and will produce qualitative data
What are some examples of social influence that can affect validity ?
-Interviewer bias
-Cultural differences
-Artificiality
-Status and power inequalities
-Social desirability
What is meant by interviewer bias?
The interviewer may ask leading questions or use a different tone or body language to convey their beliefs and opinions
What is meant by cultural differences affecting validity ?
Where different meanings may be given to words or the interviewer cannot tell when they are being lied to
What is meant by artificiality affecting validity ?
The environment is not natural and therefore the validity of the answers may not be high
What is meant by status and power inequalities affecting validity ?
The bigger that difference in status between the participant and interviewer, the less valid it is
What is meant by social desirability ?
People will change their answers to fit in with the majority and win approval from the interviewer
What is meant by Weber’s term “verstehen”
Full understanding the meaning and motivation of a person’s actions
What are the 4 types of observation ?
-Covert
-Overt
-Participant
-Non-participant
What is meant by a covert observation ?
An observation where the participants are unaware they are being studied
What is meant by an overt observation ?
An observation where the participants are aware they are being studied
What is meant by a Participant observation ?
An observation where the researcher joins in with the actions of the group they are studying
What is meant by a non-participant observation ?
An observation where the researcher does not join in with the actions of the group they are studying
What is meant by a longitudinal study ?
A study that follows the same group of participants over a long period of time
What are some advantages of using a longitudinal study ?
-It shows how certain life changes affect a person’s life
-The effect of early life on later life can be studied
-Easy to find patterns and trends
What are some disadvantages of using a longitudinal study ?
-Time consuming
-Sample attrition-participants may choose to leave the study
-May not be representative
-The researcher may become close with the participants leading to bias
-Hawthorne effect
What are the three types of experiments in sociology ?
-Lab
-Field
-The comparative method
What is the IV ?
Independent variable-what is changed
What is the DV ?
Dependent variable-what is measured
What is a lab experiment ?
A study that takes place in a controlled environment that has high control over variables and manipulates the IV to find a cause and effect relationship
What are some advantages of using a lab experiment ?
-High reliability
-High control
-produces quantitative data
-Objective
What are some disadvantages of using a lab experiment ?
-Hawthorne effect/demand characteristics
-lacks validity
-often small scale may not be representative
What is a field experiment ?
An experiment where the environment is natural but the IV is still being manipulated by the researcher
What are some advantages of field experiments ?
-higher ecological validity
-less chance of demand characteristics
What are some disadvantages of field experiments ?
-There is less control over extraneous variables
-They are less reliable than lab experiments
Outline the procedure of Harvey and Slatin’s study which is an example of a lab experiment.
96 teachers were each shown 18 pictures of children from different social backgrounds, they were then asked to rank them in 3 categories (performance, parental attitudes and aspirations)
What were the findings of Harvey and Slatin’s lab experiment ?
Teachers rated children from lower classes lower than those in higher classes, showing that teacher labeling does occur
Outline the procedure of Jane Elliot’s blue eyes brown eyes study
One day children with blue eyes were treated better, being given more privileges, the next brown eyed students got this treatment and children with blue eyes didn’t
Outline the findings of Jane Eliot’s blue eyes brown eyes study.
She found that the children that had been discriminated against performed worse in the class that day compared to those who didn’t she also found that the children started to discriminate against each other without her input
Outline the procedure of Sissons’ field experiment
An actor stood outside of Paddington station and asked people for directions the time place and question was kept the same however the actor swapped from business attire to dressing as a labourer
What were the findings of Sissons’ field experiment ?
He found that people were more likely to give directions to the business man which suggests that people have a social class bias
Which sociologist uses the comparative method ?
Durkheim
What is the comparative method ?
Comparing different societies or comparing the people within a society
Outline the procedure of Durkheim’s study using the comparative method to investigate suicide rates
He compared suicide rates in different countries and different time periods including different social groups such as religion and marital status
What groups of people were the most likely to commit suicide according to Durkheim ?
-People living in urban areas
-Protestants
-Single men
What are some strengths of the comparative method ?
-Avoids artificiality
-It can be used to study past events
-There are no ethical issues
-Patterns and trends can be easily identified
What are some disadvantages of using the comparative method ?
-Lower levels of control
-May be biased
-It cannot show cause and effect
What are some examples of documents ?
-Newspapers
-Diaries
-Social media pages
-OFSTED reports
What is a limitation of using social media pages as a document ?
It is biased as it is controlled by the person who the information is about this means it lacks validity
What is a disadvantage of using an autobiography as a document ?
It is a one sided point of view
What is a disadvantage of using newspaper articles as documents ?
There is individual bias and political bias between different newspapers this affects the validity
What is a disadvantage of using a letter as a document ?
It only has a one sided opinion and hidden messages and meanings could be missed
What is the positivist view of documents ?
-No correlation
-No cause and effect
-Not objective
-Limited quantitative data
-No facts as it is only interpretation
What is the interpretivist view of documents?
-Good qualitative data
-High validity
-Descriptive and detailed
-High Verstehen
-Subjective
What is meant by official statistics ?
Data that has been collected by an official body e.g. the government
What are the two ways to collect official statistics ?
-Registration
-Official surveys
What are some examples of government statistics collected by registration ?
-Birth rate
-Death rate
-Marriage and divorce rates
What is the main example of an official survey ?
The census
Are official statistics preferred by positivists or interpretivists ?
Positivists
What is meant by content analysis ?
A method of counting specific themes found in qualitative data to get quantitative results
What is meant by the dark figure ?
Events that happen but are not recorded
What are some strengths of using official statistics ?
-Easy to access
-Quantitative
-Free and regularly available
-large sample size
What are some weaknesses of using official statistics ?
-The dark figure(lack of validity)
-Statistics can be manipulated
-Official definitions can change
