Research Methods Flashcards
psychology as science
- general public regard psychology’s scientific status with skepticism
why is it concerning that psychology’s scientific status is questioned?
- may render would-be consumers reluctant to seek out clinical services
- lack of recognition may contribute to psychology,s lack of funding
scientific method
systematically generate knowledge through data collection, controlled observation, testing hypotheses
hypothesis
- tentative explanation for certain facts/observations
- falsifiability (hypothesis can’t be refuted)
operational definitions
concrete definitions of variables you are studying
theory
group of principles and hypotheses that explain an area of inquiry
replicability
repeating results under similar test conditions
evaluating psychopathological research
- systematic reviews and meta-analysis
- randomized controlled trials
- quasi-experiment
- cohort study
- case-control study
- surveys, case reports
- editorials, expert opinions
statistical significance
- tells you whether findings are due by chance
- testing null hypothesis
- pvalue = probability that null hypothesis is correct, type 1 error
- reject null, accept alternative hypothesis
idiographic research
- person-centered
- detailed understanding of individual
- i.e. case studies + qualitative measures
nomothetic research
- variable-centered
- uncover basic principles or laws
- measuring a group of people on a number of variables
- i.e. correlation and experiments
experiment
- allows to draw conclusions about causal relationship between variables
- refer to SMART trials on slide 17, class 7
experiment: components
- experimental hypothesis
- manipulation of IV
- measurement of DV
- compare groups on DV
experiment: random assignment to groups
- experimental group
- control group
importance of control group
- account for confounds + 3rd variables
- placebo effect
placebo effect
single-masked/single-blind
- participant = unaware of experimental conditions
double-masked/double-blind
- both participant and researcher unaware of experimental conditions
internal validity
extent to which effect can be confidently attributed to manipulation of IV (cause, effect)
external validity
can results be generalized beyond the study
ethical considerations
- ethical to randomly sign? sometimes not feasible
- what should comparison group be
correlational research
- relationship between x and y
benefits of correlational research
- complex relationships between multiple variables
- ethically cannot assign people to conditions
limitations of correlational research
- cannot infer causality
- directionality
- third variables and confounds
analogue studies
- attempts to simulate real-life situation in controlled conditions
- used when not possible to control all variables in real-life situations
- used when ethical, legal, moral issues preclude other types of studies
- animal models to test neuro/chemical activity underlying a disorder
- include panic symptoms in a lab
- simulate therapy conversation and assess trust
are examples of _____
analogue studies
field studies
- B and events are observed/recorded in their natural environment
- main technique is observation
- must avoid disrupting the natural envrionment
limitations of field studies
- no info on causality
- difficult to control variables
- observers can never be certain that their presence did not influence the interactions they observed
single-participant study
in-depth study of 1 person
single-participant study: uses
- detailed descriptions
- helpful for examining rare ir unusual phenomenon
- can serve as evidence to refute universal theory/law
- can help generate new hypotheses
- can facilitate psychotherapy training
single-participant study: types
- case study
- single-participant experiment
case study
- intensive study of one individual
- observations, tests, historical/bibliographic info
- can determine characteristics, course, outcome
case study limitations
- questions about the generalizability
- data gathered often reflect theoretical perspective bias of investigator
- do not typically provide reliable info about causes
single-participant experiment
- establish baseline, current B = control, introduce IV
- raises questions about external validity
- reversal design or ABAB design
- multiple baseline study
multiple baseline study
baslines on 2+ behaviours or same behaviour in 2+ settings = obtained before the experiment
qualitative measures
- interviews
- focus groups
- fieldnotes
- ethnographic research
qualitative measures uses
- give voice to perspectives historically marginalized
- examine issue in depth
- serve as evidence to refute universal theory
- generate new hypotheses
limitations of qualitative measures
- time-consuming
- potentially low generalizability
meta-analysis + systematic review
- review of many studies to determine overall effects
- studies included in meta-analysis
1. have certain sample size or research design
2. well- designed and use meaningful operational definitions
limitations of meta-analysis and systematic review
- results can be difficult to interpret
- depend on selection of articles to review
biological research strategies
- endophenotypes
- twin studies
- genetic studies
- study of the epigenetic processes
endophenotypes
- heritable
- seen in family members who do not have the disorder
- gene that never expressed itself
- occurs more frequently in affected families than in general population
- provides clues about genetic pathways to discover
examples of endophenotypes
- anatomical and chemical differences in the brain
- eye tracking irregularities
twin studies
- MZ = 100% genes shared
- DZ = 50% genes shared
- concordance rate
twin studies: concordance rate
- odds of one twin having the disorder if the other has the disorder
- higher concordance rate among MZ than DZ suggests genes DO play a role
- HOWEVER twins also shared an environment
twins raised apart helps the issue of _____
the environment confounding variable
genetic linkage studies goal
determine whether disorder follows a genetic pattern
genetic linkage studies: proband
- person with the disorder
- if individuals more closely related to proband are more likely to display disorder = disorder is genetically linked
- refer to graph in notes
genetic linkage studies: complications
complicated by varying degrees of penetrance
genetic linkage studies: penetrance
proportion of individuals with a particular genotype who manifest the phenotype
genetic linkage studies: complete penetrance
occurs when carrier always manifests characteristics associated with the gene
genetic linkage studies: incomplete penetrance
- rules for mental disorders
- meaning the gene for a mental disorder does not inherently manifest itself no matter what
epigenetic research
study environmental factors that influence whether or not a gene is expressed
- exposure to toxins, stress, early adversities
hypothesis that epigenetic changes can leave an imprint on eggs/sperm
- affects traits inherited by future generations
animal models
- allows for better control of variables
- analysis across multiple generations
- permits experimental procedures not practical to use on humans
- refer to examples, slides 11, class 8
epidemiological research
study rate/distribution of a disorder and health-related B in a given pop
epidemiological research: goal
to control health and mental health problems
epidemiological research: prevalence
- % of individuals in targeted pop with a particular disorder during a specific period of time
- the more people live (not die) with disorder, higher the prevalence rate
epidemiological research: incidence
- number of new cases of a disorder that appear in an identified pop within a specific period of time
- data gathering methods include surveys and longitudinal research
cohort study
- follow at risk individuals with ad without exposure to variable
- refer to drawing in notes
cohort study: benefits
- clarify temporality
- examine multiple outcomes
- best for studying rare exposures/causes
cohort study: limitations
- large sample necessary
- long follow-up
- $$$
- not very good for outcomes
case-control study
- identify cases with disorder, match to control
- compare histories of risk factors of disorder
- refer to drawing in notes
case-control study: benefits
- relatively easy and inexpensive (especially if using existing records)
- identify multiple risk factors
- best for studying rare disorders
case-control study: limitations
- recall bias
- may be difficult to find comparison group
- cannot actively control confounding variables
evidence-based treatment
- increasing emphasis on using evidence-based treatments
- treatments that have been shown to be effective for specific disorders - usually manualized
- usually brief in duration
- have been categorized by levels of support
- validity of EBT for minority group members is increasing
clinicians and EBT
- many do not use EBT
- may use treatments with either NO SUPPORT or evidence that’s NOT EFFECTIVE
clinicians and EBT: why not use it?
- concern about dehumanizing clients through the use of manuals
- find EBTs to be restrictive
- lack of government regulation
- lack of access to information
- resistance to changing approach after years of experience
- reliance on anecdotal evidence
harmful treatments
- bootcamp (interventions for conduct disorder)
- increases antisocial B - critical incident stress debriefing
- increases likelihood of developing PTSD - DARE programs
- increases intake of illicit substances - DID-oriented therapy
- induces development of alters - facilitated communication
- induces false memories - grief counseling (for normal bereavement symptoms)
- increases depressive symptoms - recovered memory techniques
- produces false memories - scared straight
- increases antisocial B
