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Year 2 NSF > Reproductive and Endocrine > Flashcards

Reproductive and Endocrine Flashcards

1
Q

What are the common clinical signs of hypothyroidism?

A 
Weight gain with no change in appetite
Poor exercise intolerance
Thinning of coat- bilateral hair loss, flaky skin
Decreased heart rate 
Mental dullness
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2
Q

Explain the following clinical signs of hypothyroidism: thinning of coat, decreased HR, mental dullness

A

Thinning of skin- thryoid hormone required for normal growth and development
Decreased HR- thyroid promotes responsiveness to sympathetic nervous system
Mental dullness- thyroid promotes axonal conductivity

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3
Q

What are the common clinical signs of hyperthyroid disease?

A

Increased appetite and weight loss
Hyperthermia
Excitable, irritable, aggressive, increased HR

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4
Q

Explain the clinical signs of hyperthyroidism?

A

Increased appetite/weight loss- increased metabolic rate

Excitable, irritable, aggressive- increased responsiveness to sympathetic nervous system

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5
Q

What blood tests are used to help diagnosis of hyper/hypoparathyroidism?

A

Testing for total and free T4
Endogenous canine TSH
Thyroglobulin autoantibodies
Hyperthyroidism- high serum T4 (total)

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6
Q

How can hyperthyroidism be treated?

A

Remove thyroid- surgery of radioactive iodine

Surgical thyroidectomy- upfront cost vs ongoing treatment- risk of damage to parathyroids

Radioactive iodine- destroys thyroid follicles, half life 8 days, serum T3/4 normalises after 1-2 weeks expensive

Effects of removing thyroid tissue- hypothyroidism, bilateral disease

Dietary restriction of iodine- only suitable for house cats

Thioureylenes- carbimazole metabolises into methimazole, inhibits synthesis of T3/4, orally administered

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7
Q

How can hypothyroidism be treated?

A

Thyroid hormone replacement
Oral administration absorbed from GI tract
Levothyroxine is T4
Liothyroxine is T3

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8
Q

How does the free amount of free hormone vary in treated animals with hypothyroidism?

A

Plasma protein binding of T3/4 varies

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9
Q

What are the adverse effects of treatment of hypothyroidism?

A

Hyperthyroidism, increased BMR, cardiovascular stimulant

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10
Q

What test results would you expect from an hypothyroid animal?

A

Endogenous TSH would be increased

T4 low- but not very sensitive

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11
Q

What do glucocorticoids do?

A

Promote gluconeogenesis in the liver, increases lipolysis, increases catabolism of proteins, inhibits growth, inhibits immune response

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12
Q

What is the common name for hyperadrenocorticism?

A

Cushings syndrome

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13
Q

What are the clinical signs of hyperadrenocorticism?

A 
Hypergylcaemia (not above renal threshold)
Tissue wasting
Muscle weakness
Pot belly
Hair loss
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14
Q

What are the causes of Cushings disease (hyperadrenocorticism)?

A

Functional adrenal tumour (ACTH decreased, unaffected size shrinks)

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15
Q

What is hypoadrenocorticism and what are the clinical signs?

A

Hypoadrenocorticism- cannot produce enough cortisol and aldosterone
Clinical signs- hyperkalaemia (cardia arrhythmias), hypertraemia (circulatory collapse)

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16
Q

What blood tests are used for adrenal disorder diagnosis?

A

ACTH stimulation test- basal blood cortisol, take blood cortisol 30-60 mins after synthetic ACTH- in normal animals this stimulates basal cortisol
Dexamethozone suppression test- basal blood cortisol taken falling injection of synthetic glucocorticoid, normal animals clear suppression of basal cortisol

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17
Q

What is Addisons disease and how is it treated?

A

Hypoadrenocorticism- can be primary, secondary of latrogenic (sudden withdrawal of prolonged glucocorticoids)
Treated by replacement therapy- glucocorticoids and or mineralocorticoids

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18
Q

How can over-production of hormones of the adrenal cortex be treated?

A

Adrenal steroid inhibitors- trilostane
Dopamine receptor agonists- horses only
Mineralcorticoid receptor antagonists

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19
Q

What is the mode of action of trilostane, the route of administration and adverse effects?

A

MOA- synthetic steroid analogue, competitive inhibitor that inhibits corticosteroid synthesis
Lipid soluble- oral administration
Adverse effects- Hypoadrenocorticism, electrolyte abnormalities, inhibits progesterone synthesis

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20
Q

What is cushings diseased treated with?

A

Dopamine receptor agonists- pergolide

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21
Q

What are mineralocorticoid receptor agonists used to treat?

A

Not endocrine- used as diuretic- spironolactone

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22
Q

What is used for mineralocorticoid receptor agonists?

A

Aldosterone (native)- not available pharmacologically v short half life
Desoxycortone pivalate

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23
Q

What are glucocorticoid receptor agonists often used to treat?

A

Anti-inflammatories

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24
Q

What is the absorption, distribution and elimination of (pharmokinetcis) of glucocorticoids?

A

Absorption- absorbed by the GI tract, mucous membranes and skin
Distribution- transported bound to plasma proteins
Elimination- Duration of acting, short, intermediate and long (1/2 hour - 72 hours

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25
What are the adverse effects of corticosteroids?
Toxic effects following long term high doses | Latrogenic hypo/hyperadrenocorticism
26
What are the clinical signs of parturient hypocalcaemia?
Skeletal muscle weakness, tremors, ataxic, recumbency, head tucked into flank, hypothermia, bloat, constipation, urine retention, dystocia, dilated pupils
27
Why is hypocalcaemia more common in older animals?
There is less bone remodelling so cannot react quickly to homeostatic mechanisms involving calcium
28
When does hypocalcaemia occur in sheep and bitches?
Sheep 3-4 weeks before parturition due to bone production | Bitches during peak lactation
29
How can kidneys disturb normal functioning parathyroid gland?
In chronic renal disease phosphate is retained leading to hyperphosphatemia which leads to hyperparathyroidism: Hyperphosphataemia forms complex with ionised Ca2+ ions causing hypocalcaemia and release of PTH Increased phosphorus reduces activation of vitamin D which activates calciferol which prevents inhibition of PTH
30
Why does hyperparathyroidism cause bone demineralisation?
PTH increases calcium mobilisation | This causes bone demineralisation
31
What blood tests can be used for disturbances of calcium metabolism?
Total serum calcium= Ionised calcium and protein bound calcium Normally 50:50 PTH can also be measured Primary hyperparathyroidism increases PTH, increased blood calcium Primary hypoparathyroidism decreases PTH/blood calcium
32
What is the difference between primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism?
Primary- problem with parathyroid- functional tumour | Secondary- nutritional/renal
33
What drugs can be used that affect calcium metabolism?
Calcium replacement with calcium salts | Vitamin D preperations
34
What are the 4 calcium salts that are used?
``` Calcium Gluconate Calcium Carbonate Calcium Chloride Calcium Borogluconate IV or oral administration ```
35
What needs to be considered with oral administration of calcium?
Absorbed from the small intestine Vit D3, PTH, acidic PH facilitate absorption Dietary fibre, phytates, steatorrhea and araemia interfere with absorption
36
How can calcium balance be improved long term?
increased dietary calcium and administering with vitamin D3
37
What are the potential adverse effects of administering calcium?
Hypercalcaemia- particular detrimental with cardia/renal disease Rapid IV- effects on the heart- Arrest and arrhythmias
38
How does vitamin D3 help phosphorus and calcium metabolism and what can they treat?
Range of hormones that alter metabolism Latrogenic hypoPTHism following thyriodectomy and immune mediated hypoPTHism Renal secondary hyperPTHism
39
How is Vit D3 administered and what are its adverse effects?
``` Oral administration- good GI absorption Protein bound but vit D binding globulin Excreted in feces Adverse effects- Narrow therapeutic index Hypercalcaemia Nephrocalcinosis Hyperphosphataemia ```
40
What is the difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes and which affects which species more?
Type 1- due to inadequate insulin secretion, more common in dogs Type 2- due to abnormal target responsiveness more common in cats
41
What are common clinical signs of diabetic animals and explain them?
Weight loss- decreased protein synthesis/without glucose muscles breakdown for protein use for energy Polydipsia and Polyuria- renal threshold is exceeded so glucose is not reabsorbed water follows, ECF decreases plasma osmolarity increases, hypothalamus stimulated thirst Ketoacidosis- Liver uses B-oxidation to breakdown fatty acids excess acetyl CoA forms ketone bodies, large amount makes animal ill CNS signs- levels of glucose in CSF directly proportional to blood sugar, high glucose in CSF draws water out of neurones causing dehydration and cell damage
42
What blood tests can be used for diagnosis of diabetes mellitus?
Hyperglycaemia Glycosurai Fructosamine- formed from glucose and serum proteins binding, reflects average of 1-3 weeks Hyperlipiaemia- milk like blood plasma
43
How is insulin deficiency treated?
Insulin replacement Insulin receptor agonists Diet also needs to be managed
44
What are the adverse effects of exogenous insulin?
Hypoglycaemia- if severe treat with IV glucose infusion | Insulin resistance
45
What is the treatment of overdose of insulin?
Feed and give IV glucose | If doesn't respond give glucagon
46
How do insulin formations vary?
According to species, concentration of zinc and size of Zinc crystals
47
What are antidiabetic agents other than insulin?
Sulphonureas- stimulates insulin release from B cells can induce hypoglycaemia
48
What is the aim of the diet to go along with treatment of diabetes?
Designes to maximise to the effect of exogenous insulin and minimise postprandial hyperglycaemia
49
Where do the ovaries of a bitch sit relative to kidneys?
Sit caudal to kidneys
50
Which ligament is in the free edge of the broad ligament and passes through the inguinal canal?
Round ligament
51
Which ligament of the bitch reproductives system is divided into mesovarium, mesosalpinx and mesometrium?
Broad ligament
52
What does the mesometrium, mesovarium and mesosalpinx of the broad ligament attach to and from?
Mesometrium- body wall to uterine horns Mesosalpinx- body wall to uterine tubule Mesovarium- body wall to ovary
53
Which two ligament of the bitch repro attach directly to ovary?
Suspensory and ovarian ligaments
54
What does the ovarian ligament contain?
Ovarian artery and vein
55
Which of the ovarian and suspensory ligaments are tight and loose?
Suspensory is tight | Ovarian loose
56
What does the ovarian ligament hold?
Holds the oviduct (continuation of the horn) close to ovary
57
What are the three types of uteri found in mammals and briefly describe them?
Simplex- one bid body no uterine horns Bicornuate- poorly to moderately developed uterine horns (mare to cow) Duplex- two car
58
Which animals have simplex, bicornuate and duplex uteri?
Simplex- primates Bicornuate- mares, cows, bitch, queen, sow Duplex- marsupials, some rabbits
59
Which of the following animals are not bicornuate and don't have a single cervix: Cow, Mare, Sow, Bitch, Queen, Ewe?
None | All bicornuate and have single cervix
60
How does the topographical anatomy of the repro tract in cows and mares differ?
Mare dorsal ovaries | Cow ventral ovaries
61
In which species doe the corpus luteum not protrude from the ovaries?
Mares
62
Describe the structure and function of follicles?
Thin walled and fluid filled Granulosa cells synthesis oestrogen Dominant follicle produces lots of oestrogen and inhibin which inhibits FSH and surpasses further development of new follicles
63
Describe the appearance and structure of corpus lutea?
Filled with luteal cells Sometimes central cavity Grey yellow with yellow cut surface
64
Compare and contract cows and mares ovaries?
Cows- smaller, CL protrudes, ovulates from different places, extensive infundibulum Mare- larger, kidney shaped, CL doesn't protrude, distinct ovulatory fossa, small infundibulum
65
How can CL and follicles be identified on ultrasound?
Follicles are fluid filled spaces | CL are grannular
66
What makes up the oviduct and what are there functions?
Infundibulum- funnel shaped opening at ovarian end Ampulla- large diameter, ciliated, site of fertilisatino Isthmus- small diameter, thicker muscular wall, sperm stored
67
Why is the mare infundibulum able to be less extensive?
Most species ovulate at a random point so need extensive infundibulum to capture oocyte, mare always ovulated from a single ovulation fossa so doesn't need extensive
68
What is the ovarian bursa?
Peritoneal sac encapsulating ovary in bitchez
69
What layers is the uterine tissue made up of?
Perimetrium Myometrium Endometrium- mucosa and submucosa
70
Which species have diffuse placentas and how are they structured?
Endometrial folds throughout the uterus contribute to maternal placenta
71
How does sheep and cows attach to amniotic sac?
They have distinct maternal caruncles
72
Describe the structure of the cervix
Thick walled and non-compliant | Cervical canal surrounded by folds or rings
73
In what animals does the cervix act as a barrier to sperm transport and how does the cervix isolate the conceptus during pregnancy?
Barrier to sperm transport in Ewe, Cow, Bitch, Queen | During pregnancy progesterone makes mucus viscous which 'glues' folds together
74
Describe the differing cervix structures of the Queen and bitch, Cow and ewe, Mare and Sow
Queen and Bitch- Small and smooth Cow and Ewe- Distinct protrusions called cervical rings Mare- no cervical rings but longitudinal folds are continuous with endometrial folds Sow has interdigitating prominences
75
Why might a catheter be introduced through a cervix?
AI, Embryo transfer, Treating uterine infections
76
What is the name of the inner/outer sac in pregnancy?
Inner- Amnion | Outer- Chorioallantois- formed by fusion go inner allantois and outer chorion
77
What is the function of the placenta?
Provides an interface for metabolic exchange between dam and foetus Transitional endocrine gland producing hormones to- maintain pregnancy Stimulation of maternal mammary growth Promotion of foetal growth
78
What are the functions of the amniotic membranes and fluid and the allantoic membranes and fluid?
Amniotic membranes and fluid- enclose foetus, hydrostatic protection, mucous at the end to form lubricant Allantoic membranes and fluid- early collection of urine, hydrostatic protection
79
What is the allantochorion?
The foetal contribution to the placenta and will provide the surface for attachment to the endometrium of the dam
80
What is the name for the functional part of the foetal placenta?
Chorionic villus- small finger like protrusions that protrude towards the uterine endometrium- increase SA
81
How are placentas classified?
According to the distribution of the chorionic villi on their surfaces and their microscopic anatomy
82
What are the 3 categories of placenta and which species has which?
Diffuse- horses and pigs Ruminats- Cotyledonary Carnivores- Zonary
83
What is the difference between cow and sheep cotyledonary placenta?
Cows have convex caruncle attaching to chorionic tissue | Sheep hace concave caruncle attaching to chorionic tissue
84
Which species placentas are epitheliochorial and endotheliochorial?
Epitheliochorial- sheep, cow, pig, mare | Endotheliochorial- dogs and cats
85
Why do dogs and cats have a pigmented zone?
Maternal haemorrhage and necrosis- normal
86
How many umbilical blood vessels are there?
Two umbilical arteries | 1 umbilical vein- bifurcates in ruminants
87
What is the function of the umbilical arteries, umbilical vein and urachus?
Arteries- left and right- internal iliac arteries to foetal maternal blood Vein- foetal-maternal blood exhange Urachus- bladder to allantoic cavity
88
What do the blood vessels/urachus eventually become?
Umbilical artery- round/lateral ligaments of the bladder Umbilical vein- round ligament of the liver Urachus- median ligament of bladder
89
What are the two basic models of penile anatomy?
Musculocavernous | Fibroelastic
90
What three parts does the penis consist of?
Base root- attaches to ischial arch Shaft- main proportion Glans penis- specialtes distil end
91
What is a musculocavernous penis dependent on for an erection?
Large corporal sinusoids that fill with blood
92
Which species have mucsulocavernous peni?
Dogs and horses
93
How is a dogs bulbs glandis unique?
Allows dogs to face in opposite directions
94
What changes occur in musculocavernous peni that allows an erection?
``` Elevates arterial blood inflow Dilation of corporal sinusoids Restricted venous outflow Elevated intrapenile pressure Penis increases in diameter ```
95
What muscles are associated with the pelvic urethra and penis and what are their functions?
Urethralis- striated, surrounds pelvic urethra moves semen into urethra Bulbospongiosus- overlaps root of penis extends down caudal and ventral surfaces, covers bulbourethral glands Ischiocavernosus- paired, short muscles in the root of the penis inset laterally above sigmoid flexure and connect penis to ischial arch Retractor penis- smooth muscle- attach dorsally to coccygeal vertebrae and ventrally to ventrolateral sides of penis, Moves penis into sheath
96
Describe the mechanism of ejaculation?
Sensory intromission Sensory stimulation of glans penis (temp and pressure_ Sudden powerful contractions of urethralis, bulbospongiosus and ishiocavernous Expulsion of semen
97
What categorises a penis as fibro-elastic?
Limited erectile tissue cased in non-expandable dense tunica albuginea Characterised by a sigmoid flexure
98
What is different about a fibro-elastic penis erection?
Erections is stiffening without a significant change in diameter
99
How is the sigmoid flexure maintained?
Maintained by a pair of retractor penis muscles which attach dorsally to coccygeal vertebrae and ventrally to the venters-lateral sides of the penis
100
What is different about a boars sigmoid flexure?
Pre-scrotal
101
Compare the glans penis in the boar, stallion, bull, ram and tom cat?
Boar- no glans, the free end terminates in spiral (locks into sows cervix Stallion- urethral process is sunk into a deep fossa glandis Bull- tapers to a point Ram- similar to bull but has worm-like urethral process Tom cat- cornfield spines to help stimulate reflex ovulation, disappear in neutered animals
102
What are calculi and what problem can they cause?
Calculi (stones) from the bladder can get caught in the penile urethra and the animal may be unable to pass urine and rupture the penis
103
Where are the common pinch points affected by calculi in the following species: Dogs, Bulls, Rams?
Dogs- base of the os penis Bulls- proximal end of the sigmoid flexure/ischial arch Rams- vermiform appendage
104
Describe the different appearance of scrotums in different species?
Bull and small ruminants- long, pendulous marked neck Stallion- globular with poorly defined neck Boar- subanal, lying close against caudal surface thighs
105
What are the three ligaments of the testis?
Proper ligament Ligament of the tail of the epididymis Scrotal ligament
106
Where is sperm stored in the testis?
Sperm stored in tail of epididymis
107
What is the function of the pampiniform plexus?
Countercurrent heat exchanger
108
What is the function of the accessory sex glands?
Produce seminal plasma- non cellular fluid portion of semen (packed lunch) Small in immature animals/castrated before puberty Post-pubertal castration leads to atrophy of glandular component
109
What are the 4 accessory sex glands?
Ampulla- enlargements of ductus deferens that open directly into pelvic urethra Vesicular glands/seminal vesicles- paired glands dorso-cranial to pelvic urethra Prostate- between junctions ofpelvic urethra and bladder Bulbourethral glands- paired glands either side of pelvic urethra near ischial arch

Year 2 NSF (16 decks)

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