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Biological and Biochemical Foundations > Reproduction & Cell Growth > Flashcards

Reproduction & Cell Growth Flashcards

1
Q

Female sex changes after menopause

A
  • Vaginal epithelium dehydrates
  • Changes in mood
  • Breasts and reproductive organs shrink
  • would also occur if ovaries were removed*
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2
Q

Vagina

A

Endometrial implants within the vagina may impair the passage of sperm and decrease the likelihood that an ovulated oocyte will be fertilized

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3
Q

Ovaries

A

Female gonads that produce gametes (oocytes) and secrete female sex hormones; endometrial implants attached to the ovary may cause infertility by impairing follicular maturation or ovulation

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4
Q

Fallopian tubes

A

Duct structures lined with motile cilia that transfer the ovulated oocyte from the abdominal cavity toward the uterus; implants would prevent a fertilized oocyte from reaching the uterus for implantation

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5
Q

Cervix

A

Barrier separating vagina and uterus; implants may impair the passage of sperm and decrease chance of fertilization

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6
Q

Female puberty effects

A
  • Growth and maturation of female sexual organs (fallopian tubes, uterus)
  • Development of sex-specific traits (widening of pelvis, breast development)
  • Initiation of the menstrual cycle through stimulation of oogenesis and ovulation
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7
Q

Female menopause

A

Production of estrogen and progesterone within the ovaries declines (opposite of what happens during female puberty; breasts shrink, vaginal epithelium dehydrates, etc)

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8
Q

Head (sperm)

A

Contains an acrosome and the nucleus; rich in specialized lysosome-like enzymes for piercing the outer shell of an oocyte during fertilization

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9
Q

Midpiece (sperm)

A

Section packed with mitochondria, essential organelles that produce the ATP required for flagellum-driven sperm motility; also contains a pair of central MTs that are anchored to the cytoskeleton and extend down the length of the flagellum (tail region)

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10
Q

Flagellum (sperm)

A

Specialized for wavelike movements to propel sperm through a fluid environment; this is derived from the action of ATP-dependent motor proteins that act on the central MTs

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11
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Male gametes are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes
- Pathway: spermatogonium (stem cells that undergo cell division), spermatocyte, spermatid, and spermatozoon (mature sperm, through the loss of most of their cytoplasm, acrosome formation around the nucleus, and mitochondrial concentration round the midpiece, and development of a tail)

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12
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Male gametes are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes
- Pathway: spermatogonium (stem cells that undergo cell division), spermatocyte, spermatid, and spermatozoon (mature sperm, through the loss of most of their cytoplasm, acrosome formation around the nucleus, and mitochondrial concentration round the midpiece, and development of a tail)

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13
Q

Oogenesis

A

(Starts at 4 weeks gestation) Oogonia (germ cells) are diploid stem cells that first multiply via mitosis and become primary oocytes

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14
Q

Primary oocytes

A

They commence the first meiotic division but become arrested in prophase I (this is from infancy to puberty)

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15
Q

Female puberty (body effects)

A
  • Stimulation by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) followed by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) causes some primary oocytes to resume meiosis I
  • The last stage of meiosis I (telophase I) yields two unevenly divided haploid cells (one is the secondary oocyte, while the other is the first polar body (does not develop into a mature oocyte))
  • Secondary oocyte begins meiosis II but halts in metaphase II, and the polar body degenerates
  • SO remains frozen in metaphase II until fertilization occurs, at which point it completes its second meiotic division (telophase II) to an ootid and second polar body
  • The zygote that results is diploid due to genetic contribution from both the ovum and sperm nuclei
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16
Q

Human sperm and oocytes are substantially different in the following:

A

Maturation stage at birth, cell volume, and the rate at which they are produced

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17
Q

Human sperm and oocytes are substantially different in the following:

A

Maturation stage at birth, cell volume, and the rate at which they are produced

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18
Q

Cell cycle

A

G0: Cell cycle arrest, resting phase
G1 phase: Presynthetic growth, organelle duplication
S phase: DNA replication
G2 phase: Premitotic growth, DNA damage repair
M phase: Cell division

19
Q

Kinesin

A

Moves intracellular cargo along MTs in anterograde axonal transport (away from the nucleus and toward distal sites)

20
Q

Dynein

A

Participates in retrograde axonal transport of intracellular cargo (from distal sites toward the nucleus)

21
Q

Reduced number of fallopian cilia

A

Cause an embryo to implant in a location other than the uterine lining

22
Q

Pluripotent cells

A

Are very undifferentiated cells and can develop into virtually all adult cells

23
Q

Frequency of recombination

A

Genes that are situated physically closer together on the chromosome have a lower probability of being separated during meiosis I. Therefore, the greater the physical distance between genes, the higher the frequency of recombination

24
Q

Eukaryotes

A

Have nuclei, and other membrane-bound organelles

25
Q

Menstruation

A

Occurs during the period with the lowest FSH and LH secretion

26
Q

LH surge

A

Responsible for ovulation

27
Q

Developing mesoderm in an embryo will lead to malformations in:

A

Blood (derived from mesoderm), arteries (smooth muscle in their walls and endothelial cells as their lining, both derived from mesoderm), and pericytes (derived from mesoderm)

28
Q

Heterozygote advantage

A

Individuals with a single copy of the recessive allele experience greater neural growth early in life

29
Q

Genetic drift

A

Random mating of individuals in a large population has diminished the role of the dominant allele

30
Q

Prenatal karyotyping

A

Genetic screening before birth is being used to select for individuals that have parental traits

31
Q

Hybrid vigor

A

The cost to reproduction is compensated for by the high rates of divorce and new matings in parents

32
Q

What would be affected if a cell did not transition from G1 to S

A

Mitosis, spindle formation, DNA synthesis

33
Q

Advanced aging mimics many symptoms of mitochondrial dysfunction:

A

The impact of aging on cells is mediated by an accumulation of damage over time
Mediated by: random mutations, carcinogens, telomere shortening, and reactive oxygen species

34
Q

Why isn’t sperm mtDNA found in fetal mitochondria?

A

Mitochondria are targeted and destroyed by maternal organelles, destroying sperm mtDNA

35
Q

Zygote

A

Newly-fertilized egg cell

36
Q

Blastulas

A

Hollow balls of cells

37
Q

Oocytes

A

Unfertilized egg cells

38
Q

Morula

A

Solid balls of cells

39
Q

How can organizer cells still function after they have been killed?

A

Organizer cells act as a containment area for signaling molecules that are released as the cell breaks down

40
Q

Cells of the retinal pigment epithelium should have above-average numbers of:

A

Lysosomes and ribosomes
The retinal pigment epithelium is attached to a basement membrane

41
Q

If a cell has a resting potential of -65 mV, and threshold of -55 mV; will an action potential be generated by a single stimulus, that lowers the membrane potential by 15 mV?

A

No, because the stimulus hyperpolarized the membrane, producing an inhibitory effect

42
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Arf1 is responsible for COP vesicles retrograde transport from the Golgi; normally before reaching the Golgi apparatus, proteins have passed first through the cytoplasm and then the endoplasmic reticulum; as Arf1 is the protein that regulates retrograde movement from the Golgi, the vesicle will move back from the Golgi to the endoplasmic reticulum

43
Q

Nondisjunction

A

Defines the process when paired chromosomes or duplicated chromosomes fail to separate and segregate in two distinct daughter cells

44
Q

Moving from early endosome to the Golgi

A

They would have to surpass the lysosome

Biological and Biochemical Foundations (14 decks)

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