Relationships - A2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is an evolutionary explanation of sexual selection?
A
- Based on the idea that human beings seek to continue their genetic line using adaptation mechanisms to ensure their survival (via reproductive success)
- Traits are passed down through generations with only the fittest traits surviving -> selecting a partner who is likely to give your offspring the best chance of survival & further reproduction
2
Q
What is inter-sexual selection?
A
- Intersexual selection is the selection between the sexes -> refers to the differences between males and females & the ways in which these differences manifest themselves as attractive qualities in a mate
- Males must have resources to offer security to the female; females must show they are a good ‘investment’ - their child-rearing potential
3
Q
Why is inter-sexual selection the preferred female strategy and what are the features of this strategy?
A
- The preferred strategy for females and represents female preference for quality over quantity
- Female choosiness: females must be more cautious when choosing a sexual partner than males
- Explanation for female choosiness is anisogamy - the idea that ‘sperm is cheap; eggs are expensive’ - eggs require more energy to produce than sperm
4
Q
What is intrasexual selection?
A
- The ways in which one sex competes for the attention of the opposite sex
- Competition takes place between males for the attention of females
- Desirable physical & psychological attributes a male should possess to find reproductive success:
height, physical fitness, aggression
5
Q
What is physical dimorphism and how does it result from intrasexual selection?
A
- Intrasexual selection has caused dimorphism
- Dimorphism: the obvious differences between males & females
6
Q
What is anisogamy?
A
- The differences between male and female sex cells
- Suggests the best male reproductive strategy is to mate with as many fertile females as possible -> they need low energy to produce sperm & have less responsibility in caring for any offspring
7
Q
What research is there investigating evolutionary partner preferences?
A
- Buss (1989) - cross-cultural survey conducted over 33 countries -> found that females prefer male partners with resources & traits e.g. ambition whilst males prefer younger, fertile female partners
- Clarke & Hatfield (1989) - field experiment where female & male students were asked to ‘go to bed with’ an opposite-sex stranger (same age and deemed to be ‘attractive): 75% of the males said yes to this request; no females did
- Fisher ‘Sexy sons hypothesis: females mate with males with desirable characteristics so their sons inherit this ‘sexy’ trait -> increases the likelihood the successive generation will mat with the females offspring - runaway process
- Trivers: females invest more time & resources before and after birth of offspring -> females try and choose a genetically fit partner who is able/willing to provide resources -> leaves males to compete - females are very selective as the consequences of a bad choice are more serious
8
Q
What are the strengths of evolutionary explanations for partner preferences? (A03)
A
- Research support for intersexual selection: Clarke & Hatfield field experiment - female & male students asked to ‘go to bed with’ an opposite-sex stranger (same age & deemed to be ‘attractive): 75% of the males said yes to this request; not one of the females did - females are choosier + males have evolved a different strategy
- Research support for intrasexual selection: Buss - cross-cultural survey conducted over 33 countries -> found females prefer male partners with resources & traits e.g. ambition but males prefer younger female partners who are attractive and fertile -> reflects consistent sex differences in partner preferences
9
Q
What is a counterpoint to research support for sexual selection? (A03)
A
- Too simplistic to assume one strategy is more adaptive for males/females -> sexual strategies theory (Buss & Schmitt) argues both males & females adopt similar mating strategies when seeking long-term relationships - both sexes are choosy + look for loving, loyal partners -> more nuanced view which accounts context of reproductive behaviour
10
Q
What are the weaknesses of evolutionary explanations for partner preferences? (A03)
A
- Evolutionary theory is solely concerned with heterosexual mating preferences & reproduction -> limited applicability to homosexual people & LGBTQ community
- lacks external validity as it does not account for social/cultural variations in mating preferences e.g. women are actually able to support themselves and do not necessarily need to rely on a man (Bereczkei et al - social has impacts on woman mate preferences -> not resource-oriented)
11
Q
What is self-disclosure?
A
- The act of revealing personal information about the self to another person
Depends on a number of factors:
- The person to whom the details are disclosed e.g. a romantic partner
- Stage of the relationship
- The person who is disclosing the information
- The nature of the details being disclosed e.g. banal or controversial
12
Q
What is self-reciprocity as an influence on self disclosure?
A
- Encouraging self-disclosure from the other person
- Reis & Shaver see it as essential for any romantic relationship to develop
- As we reveal something about our true self, our partner will respond -> increases levels of understanding, empathy -> increases intimacy & deepens the relationship
13
Q
What is social penetration theory?
A
- Altman & Taylor
- Argued that trust between two intimate partners is created through the reciprocal exchange of information
- By increasing these disclosures, partners penetrate more deeply into each other’s lives and gain a greater understanding of each other
14
Q
What are the four levels of self disclosure in SPT?
A
- Superficial self-disclosure details of where someone lives; their job; their hobbies -> some breadth but not much depth
- Intimate self-disclosure: someone’s ambitions; previous relationship history
- Personal self-disclosure starts to go deeper into areas such as hopes; desires; insecurities etc.
- Core self-disclosure has real depth & less breadth as someone may only have a few details buried deep within the layers of their psyche e.g. their innermost fears
15
Q
What research is there into self disclosure?
A
- Collins & Miller (1994) -meta-analysis -> self-disclosure plays an important role in the maintenance of relationships
- Tang et al. (2013) - American couples reported making more intimate/sexual disclosures than Chinese couples; higher relationship satisfaction in both cultures -> self-disclosure has cultural variations - SPT model may be culturally biased
16
Q
What are the strengths of self disclosure? (A03)
A
- Research support: Sprecher & Hnedrick studied heterosexual couples & found strong correlations between satisfaction measures & self-disclosure + men & women using self disclosure were more satisfied & committed -> increased validity
- Real world application: in Westernised nations - with its emphasis on open communication it can be used to guide and inform relationship counselling
17
Q
What are the weaknesses of self disclosure? (A03)
A
- Cultural differences: Tang et al reviewed literature on self disclosure - found that men & women in individualistic USA self disclosed more intimate feelings than those in collectivist China -> despite lower disclosure, satisfaction levels were the same as USA
- Self-disclosure is a difficult variable to operationalise as it is open to subjective interpretation which means that associated theories lack the features of science
18
Q
What is Shackelford & Larsen’s theory of physical attractiveness?
A
- People with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive - honest signal that might imply genetic fitness
- People are attracted to neotenous features -> trigger a caring instinct -valuable for females wanting to reproduce
19
Q
What is the halo effect?
A
- ‘What is beautiful is good’ stereotype - Dion et al
- Occurs when good-looking people are thought to be more socially desirable
- Cognitive bias - involves generalising conclusions & forming an impression about a good-looking person based only on attractiveness & no other available info
- Creates a self-fulfilling prophecy
20
Q
What is the matching hypothesis?
A
- People are more likely to succeed in relationships and claim to like people who are of roughly equal physical attractiveness
- To successfully match ourselves to a potential partner - we make a realistic judgement about our value to them
- We balance our desire for the most physically attractive person possible with our wish to avoid rejection
