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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is psychopathology?

A

The study of psychological disorders

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2
Q

What are the four definitions of abnormality?

A
  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
  • Failure to function adequately
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3
Q

What is statistical infrequency?

A

Anything usual is seen as normal, anything unusual occurring occasionally, is seen as abnormal

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4
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of statistical infrequency?

A

+ Objective measure as it doesn’t rely on social norms or opinions
- Makes the assumption that any abnormal characteristics are automatically negative but this isn’t always the case

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5
Q

What is deviation from social norms?

A

Anything which is considered strange by the people of a particular society

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6
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of deviation from social norms?

A

+ Helps society: Adhering to social norms means that society is ordered and predictable
- Suffers from cultural relativism
- Depends on the time period

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7
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Suggests that abnormal behaviour should be defined by the absence of particular criteria - Jahoda’s criteria

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8
Q

What are Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health?

A
  • Self-esteem
  • Self-actualisation
  • Independent and self-reliant
  • Resistance to stress
  • Mastery of environment
  • Accurate perception of reality
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9
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of deviation from ideal mental health?

A

+ Positive approach as it focuses on what is helpful and desirable for the individual
- Unrealistic criteria and it’s impossible to achieve all of them
- Suffers from culture relativism
- Criteria is subjective and difficult to measure

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10
Q

What is failure to function adequately?

A

Circumstances where a person is unable to cope with demands of every day life

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11
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of failure to function adequately?

A

+ Take’s into account the patient’s perspective - the final diagnosis is comprised of the patient’s subjective self reported symptoms (accurate)
+ Represents a threshold for help - the criterion means that treatment can be targeted to those who need it most
- Could lead to labelling of a patient as crazy which isn’t useful if they already live a high quality life

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12
Q

What is a phobia and what are the 3 main types?

A

An irrational fear of an object or situation
- Specific phobia
- Agoraphoria: fear of a public place
- Social phobia (social anxiety): intense fear and anxiety in social situations

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13
Q

What are the behvaioural characteristics of phobias?

A
  • Panic: crying, screaming, running away
  • Endurance: the person remains in presence of the phobic stimulus but still experiences anxiety
  • Avoidance: avoid coming into contact with the phobic stmiulus
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14
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

A
  • Anxiety
  • Fear
  • Irrational and disproportionate emotional response
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15
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A
  • Selective attention: the patient remains focused on the phobic stimulus even if it’s causing them anxiety
  • Irrational beliefs
  • Cognitive distortions: the patient doesn’t perceive the phobic stimulus accurately
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16
Q

What are the strengths of the behavioural explanation of phobias?

A
  • Good explanatory power: Mowrer’s two-process model explains how phobias can be maintained - important implications for therapies as it explained why patients need exposure to feared stimulus(real-life application)
  • Evidence for a link between bad experiences and phobias - the association between stimulus and UCR -> phobia (Little Albert)
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17
Q

What are the weaknesses of the behavioural explanation of phobias?

A
  • An incomplete explanation of phobias: Bounton showed that evolutionary factors play a role in explaining phobias - Seligman called this biological preparedness (the innate predisposition to acquire certain fears)
  • Some phobias don’t follow a traumatic experience: someone might fear snakes but have never encountered one - contradicts key aspect of mowrer’s model
  • Ignores the cognitive aspects of behaviour: although behavioural explanation,including two-process model, is oriented towards explaining behaviour (avoidance) than cognition, phobias still have a cognitive element (e.g. irrational beliefs) - reductionist
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18
Q

What are the two behavioural approaches to treating phobias?

A
  • Systematic desensitisation
  • Flooding
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19
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A
  • Aims to reduce phobic anxiety through gradual exposure to phobic stimulus
  • Anxiety hierachy is constructed of situations involving the phobic stimulus
  • Taught relaxation techniques and reciprocal inhibition takes place
  • Patient works their way up hierachy until no anxiety is felt at highest level
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20
Q

What evidence did Gilroy et al provide for systematic desensitisation?

A
  • Gilroy et al. (2003) followed up 42 people who had SD for spider phobia in three 45-min sessions
  • At both three and 33 months, the SD group were less fearful than a control group treated by relaxation without exposure
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21
Q

What are the strengths of systematic desensitisation?

A
  • Proven successful by Gilroy et al. (2003): a group of 42 patients who had systematic desensitisation as a treatment for arachnaphobia over 3 45 minutes sessions - at both 3 and 33 months they were less fearful compared to the control group
  • Suitable for patients with learning difficulties: doesn’t require a huge cognitive load or evaluating their own thoughts
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22
Q

What are the weaknesses of systematic desensitisation?

A
  • Less effective for evolutionary phobias: certain phobias, like heights, have an evolutionary survival benefit and are not the result of personal experience, but of evolution.
  • Leads to symptom substitution: treats the symptoms not the cause - may leave patient vulnerable to other phobias developing as the root behind the fear has yet to be uncovered
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23
Q

What is flooding?

A
  • Patient is exposed to phobic stimulus in a secure environment
  • No option of avoidance behaviour so can’t be reinforced
  • Phobia isn’t maintained
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24
Q

What are the strengths of flooding?

A
  • Cost-effective: often only one session is needed, thus freeing them of their phobia and allowing them to live a normal life
  • Works very well with ‘simple’ phobias e.g. phobias of one specific thing or object
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25
Q

What are the weaknesses of flooding?

A
  • Less effective for complex phobias: social phobias involve both anxiety and a cognitive aspect - cognitive therapy would be more appropriate
  • Traumatic: unpleasant experience, and If the patient panics and the treatment is not completed, it may leave them with an even worse fear/phobia of the object/event - waste of time and money
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26
Q

What is depression?
What are the four categories?

A

A mood disorder, where the sufferer experiences low mood and low energy levels

  • Major depressive disorder: severe but short-term
  • Persistent depressive disorder: long term including sustained major depression
  • Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: childhood temper tantrums
  • Premenstrual dysphoric disorder: disruption prior to/and during menstruation
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27
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?

A
  • Activity levels: could result in psychomotor agitation (can’t stay still) or low energy
  • Changes in sleeping and eating behaviour
  • Aggression and self-harm
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28
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of depression?

A
  • Lowered mood: feeling worthless and empty
  • Low self-esteem
  • Anger
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29
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?

A
  • Absolutist thinking: also called ‘black and white thinking’
  • Poor concentration
  • Selective attention to negative events
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30
Q

What is Ellis’ ABC model?
(define irrational beliefs)

A

A - Activating event: We get depressed when we experience negative external events and these trigger irrational beliefs
B - Beliefs: Irrational thoughts are any thoughts which interfere with us being happy and free from pain
C - Consequence: Emotional (depression) and behavioural consequences

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31
Q

What is Beck’s cognitive therapy?

A
  • Aims to identify the automatic thoughts about the world, the self, and the future (negative triad) -> once identified these thoughts must be challenged
  • Also aims to help clients test the reality of their negative beliefs -> known as the ‘client as the scientist’, investigating the reality of their negative belief
32
Q

What is the difference between reactive and endogenous depression?

A

Reactive: depression triggered by negative life events (activating events)
Endogenous: not traceable to life events and it isn’t obvious to what leads to the person becoming depressed

33
Q

What is REBT?

A
  • Extends the ABC model to ABCDE - Dispute and Effects -> identifies + disputes irrational thoughts
  • Rational emotive behavioral therapy: the idea that by vigorously arguing with the depressed person, the therapist can alter the irrational beliefs that are making the person unhappy
34
Q

What did Beck believe about depression?

A
  • Some people are more vulnerable to depression than others - a persons cognitions create this vulnerability (cognitive vulnerability) and it has 3 parts:
  • Faulty information processing: when depressed people attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore positives
  • Negative self-schema: interpreting all information about themselves negatively
  • Negative triad
35
Q

What are cognitive vulnerabilities?

A

Ways of thinking that may predispose a person to becoming depressed, e.g. faulty information processing, negative self-schema, and the cognitive triad

36
Q

What is Beck’s negative triad

A
  • Suggested that a person develops a dysfunctional view of themselves because of 3 types of negative thinking that occur automatically, regardless of the reality of what’s happening at the time:
    a) Negative view of the world
    b) Negative view of the future
    c) Negative view of the self
37
Q

What evidence did Clark & Beck and Cohen et al provide about the cognitive explanation of depression?

A
  • Clark & Beck concluded that not only were these cognitive vulnerabilities more common in depressed
    people but they preceded the depression
  • Confirmed in a more recent prospective study by Cohen et al - tracked the development of 473 adolescents, regularly measuring cognitive vulnerability -> found that showing cognitive vulnerability predicted later depression
38
Q

What are the weaknesses of Ellis’ cognitive explanation of depression?

A
  • Partial explanation: only explains reactive not endogenous depression - no doubt that depression is triggered by life events (reactive) and how we respond to them is a result of our beliefs - some cases of depression aren’t traceable to life events (endogenous)
  • Ethical issues: controversial model as it locates responsibility for depression purely with the depressed person - critics say this is blaming the depressed person (unfair)
39
Q

What is a strength of Ellis’ cognitive explanation of depression?

A

+ Real-world application: in the psychological treatment of depression - Ellis’ approach to cognitive therapy is REBT which is the idea that by vigorously arguing with the depressed person, the therapist can alter the irrational beliefs making them unhappy - some evidence to support the idea that REBT can both change negative beliefs and relieve symptoms of depression (David et al)

40
Q

What is a strength of the cognitive treatments of depression?

A
  • Research support: CBT was found to be just as effective as antidepressants (March et al - compared CBT to antidepressants + to a combination of both treatments when treating 327 depressed adolescents. After 36 weeks, 81% of CBT group, 81% of the antidepressants group & 86% of the CBT plus antidepressants group were significantly improved
41
Q

What are the limitations of the cognitive treatment to depression?

A
  • Suitability for diverse clients: ineffective for people with learning difficulties due to high cognitive load (Stumey)
  • Relapse rates: CBT doesn’t have long-lasting benefits (Ali et al) so may need to be repeated periodically
42
Q

What study did March et al conduct about the effectiveness of CBT?

A
  • A study of 327 adolescents comparing the effectiveness of CBT, antidepressants and a combination of both
  • After 36 weeks, 81% of antidepressant group, 81% of CBT, and 86% of combination improved
43
Q

What did Stumey suggest about the cognitive treatment to depression for people with learning difficulties?

A
  • Stumey suggested that psychotherapy of any kind is unsuitable for people with learning difficulties
44
Q

What did Ali et al’s study show about cognitive treatments to depression?

A
  • Ali et al assessed depression in 439 clients every month for 12 months following a course of CBT
  • 42% relapsed after 6 months of ending treatment
45
Q

What are the weaknesses of Beck’s cognitive explanation of depression?

A
  • Only a partial explanation: cognitive vulnerability explains why depressed people show particular patterns of cognition before the onset of depression - some aspects of depression aren’t well explained by cognitive explanations e.g. some depressed people feel extreme anger, some experience hallucinations
46
Q

What are the strengths of Beck’s cognitive explanations of depression?

A

+ Research support: in a review Clark and Beck concluded that cognitve vulnerabilities were more common in depressed people and preceded the depression - more recently Cohen et al tracked development of 473 adolescents and found showing CV predicted later depression
+ Real-world application: to screening & treatment for depression - Cohen et al concluded that assessing cognitive vulnerability allows psychologists to identify young people most at risk & understanding CV can be applied to CBT which alters the cognitions that make people vulnerable to depression

47
Q

What is OCD?

A
  • A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour
  • Obsessions are cognitive whereas obsessions are behavioural
48
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?

A
  • Compulsions are repetitive: people with OCD are compelled to repeat a behaviour
  • Compulsions reduce anxiety: compulsive behaviours are performed in attempt to manage the anxiety produced by the obsessions
  • Avoidance: people with OCD tend to try to manage their OCD by avoiding situations that trigger anxiety
49
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?

A
  • Anxiety and distress: obsessive thoughts are unpleasant and frightening, and the anxiety that goes with these can be frightening - the urge to repeat a behaviour (compulsion) creates anxiety
  • Accompanying depression: OCD is often accompanied by depression so anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities
    Guilt and disgust: OCD sometimes involves irrational guilt or disgust which may be directed against something external or the self
50
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?

A
  • Obsessive thoughts: thoughts that recur over and over again - vary from person to person but are always unpleasant
  • Cognitive coping strategies: help manage anxiety but can make the person appear abnormal to others and can distract them from everyday tasks
  • Insight into excessive anxiety: experience catastrophic thoughts about the worse case scenarios that might result if their anxieties were justified
51
Q

What are the 3 genetic explanations of OCD?

A
  • Candidate genes
  • OCD is polygenic
  • Different types of OCD
52
Q

What are candidate genes? Give an example.

A
  • Genes which create vulnerability for OCD
  • Some of these genes are involved in regulating development of the serotonin system
  • For example, the gene 5HT1-D beta is implicated in the transport of serotonin across synapses
53
Q

What does OCD being polygenic mean?
Which study is associated with this?

A
  • OCD is not caused by one single gene but by a combination of genetic variations that together significantly increase vulnerability
  • Taylor (2013) found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD
54
Q

What is the ‘different types of OCD’ explanation?

A
  • Aetiologically heterogenous: one group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group cause the disorder in another person
  • Also some evidence to suggest that different types of OCD may be the result of particular genetic variations e.g. hoarding disorder and religious obsession
55
Q

What did Lewis’ study suggest about genetic vulnerablity?

A
  • Of his OCD patients, 37% had OCD parents
  • OCD runs in families - passes on genetic vulnerability
56
Q

What is the diathesis-stress model?

A

Certain genes leave some people more likely to develop a mental disorder but it’s not certain - some environmental stress is necessary to trigger the condition

57
Q

What evidence does Nestadt et al provide for the genetic explanation of OCD?

A

They reviewed twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins (MZ) shared OCD as opposed to 31% of non-identical (DZ) twins

58
Q

What evidence did Cromer et al provide against the genetic explanation of OCD?

A
  • They found that over half the OCD clients in their sample had experienced a traumatic event in
    their past
  • OCD was also more severe in those with one or more traumas.
59
Q

What are the 2 neural explanations of OCD?

A
  • The role of serotonin
  • Decision-making systems
60
Q

What is ‘the role of serotonin’ explanation for OCD?

A
  • Concerns the role of the neurotransmitter serotonin - helps regulate mood
  • If a person has low levels of serotonin, normal transmission of mood-relevant info doesn’t take place - person may experience low moods
61
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another

62
Q

What is the ‘decision-making systems’ neural explanation of OCD?

A
  • Some cases of OCD, particularly hoarding disorder, seem to be associated with impaired decision-making
  • Also associated with abnormal functioning of lateral of the frontal lobes
  • Evidence to suggest that an area called the left parahippocampal gyrus, associated with processing unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally in OCD
63
Q

What is the left parahippocampal gyrus’ role in OCD?(neural explanation)

A
  • There is some evidence to suggest the left parahippocampal gyrus, associated with processing unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally in OCD
64
Q

What is a strength of the genetic explanations of OCD?

A
  • Research support: evidence from a range of sources which suggest some people are vulnerable to OCD due to their genetic makeup
  • Nestadt et al twin studies (2010) found 68% of MZ twins shared OCD
  • Marini & Stebnicki (2012) found that a person with an OCD family member were 4 times more likely to develop it
65
Q

What are the weaknesses of the genetic explanations of OCD?

A
  • Environmental risk factors: strong evidence for the idea that genetic variation can make a person more/less vulnerable but OCD isn’t entirely genetic in origin - environmental risk factors can trigger OCD - Cromer et al (2007) found that over half the OCD clients had a past traumatic event = partial explanation
  • Animal studies: mice and human share most genes but the human mind and brain are much more complex - not possible to generalise from animal repetitive behaviour to human OCD
66
Q

What is a strength of the neural explanations to OCD?

A
  • Research support: antidepressants that work purely on serotonin are effective in reducing OCD symptoms, suggests serotonin may be involved in OCD - Soomro et al
  • OCD symptoms form part of conditions that are known to be biological in origin e.g. Parkinson’s disease causing paralysis (Nestadt et al. 2010)
  • If a biological disorder produces OCD symptoms, then we may assume the biological processes underlie OCD - biological factors may be responsible for OCD
67
Q

What is the evidence for the benefits of drug therapy and who conducted the study?

A
  • Soomro et al reviewed 17 studies on the use of SSRIs with OCD patients
  • He found them to be more effective than placebos in reducing the symptoms of OCD up to 3 months after treatment
68
Q

What are the weaknesses of the neural explanations of OCD?

A
  • No unique neural system: serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to OCD - many people with OCD also experience clinical depression (co-morbid) + it involves disruption to the action of serotonin - could be that serotonin activity is disrupted in many people with OCD as they’re also depressed - serotonin may not be relevant to OCD symptoms
  • Correlation and causality: although some neural systems don’t work normally in people with OCD, this is a correlation between neural abnormality & OCD - doesn’t indicate a causal relationship, possible that the OCD causes the abnormal brain function or both influenced by 3rd factor
69
Q

What does drug therapy do?

A

Aims to increase/decrease the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain

70
Q

How do SSRIs work?

A
  • By preventing the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin, SSRIs increase levels of serotonin in the synapse so continue to stimulate the post-synaptic neuron
  • Compensates for whatever is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD
71
Q

How does the serotonin system work in the brain?

A
  • Serotonin is released by pre-synaptic neuron & travels across a synapse
  • Neurotransmitter chemically conveys a signal from pre- to post-synaptic neuron
  • Then reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron where its broken down and reused
72
Q

What is the effect of combining SSRIs with other treatments?

A
  • Drugs are often used alongside CBT
  • Drugs reduce the emotional symptoms (anxiety, depression)
  • OCD client can engage more effectively with CBT
73
Q

What are the alternatives to SSRIs?

A
  • Tricyclics
  • SNRIs
74
Q

What are the weaknesses of the biological treatments to OCD?

A

Serious side-effects: can be distressing and sometimes long-lasting e.g. blurred vision, indigestion - some people have a reduced quality of life as a result of taking drugs so may stop taking them altogether - drugs cease to be effective.

75
Q

What are the strengths of the biological treatments to OCD?

A
  • Evidence of effectiveness: evidence to show that SSRIs reduce symptom severity and improve the quality of life for people with OCD (Soomro et al: reviewed 17 studies - reduction in symptoms for 70% compared to placebo) - helpful
  • Cost-effective: cheap compared to psychological treatments - many thousands of tablets or liquid doses can be manufactured in the time it takes to conduct one session of a psychological therapy - good value for public health systems like NHS

Psychology (11 decks)

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