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Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are neurons?

A

The basic building blocks of the nervous system - they process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals

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2
Q

What are the different functions of the neuron?

A
  • Dendrites: branchlike structures that receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptor cells
  • Axon: carries impulses away from cell body down length of neuron
  • Myelin sheath: insulates the axon so that the electrical impulses travel faster along the axon
  • Terminal button: connects the neuron to other neurons using synaptic transmission
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3
Q

What is action potential?

A
  • A tiny electrical impulse that is triggered by a change in the electrical ‘potential’ of the neuron itself
  • The inside of the neuron goes from being negatively charged to positively charged
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4
Q

What is the structure and function of the 3 types of neurons?

A
  • Motor: found in the CNS, and connects CNS to effectors like muscles and glands, to control muscle movements - short dendrites & long axons
  • Sensory: found in receptors cells (e.g. skin) + carry nerve impulses to the spinal cord and brain - when these nerve impulses reach the brain, they are translated into ‘sensations’ (e.g. touch) - longer dendrites & short axons
  • Relay: found in between sensory input and motor response + connect sensory neurons to motor or other relay neurons - short dendrites & short axons
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5
Q

What is synaptic transmission?

A

The process by which one neuron communicates with another

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6
Q

What are the stages of synaptic transmission?

A

1) An electrical signal called an action potential arrives at the presynaptic neuron
2) This stimulates vesicles containing neurotransmitters to move down and bind to the wall of the presynaptic neuron
3) Neurotransmitters are released from the vesicles into the synaptic cleft
4) Neurotransmitters are received by receptors on the post-synaptic receptors via a lock and key mechanism

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7
Q

What are the functions of the 2 elements of the CNS?

A
  • Brain: centre of awareness - divided into 2 hemispheres - outer layer is more distinguishes us from animals (cerebral cortex)
  • Spinal cord: an extension of the brain - transports messages to and from the brain to the PNS - responsible for reflexes
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8
Q

What are the functions of the 2 subsystems of the PNS?

A
  • Autonomic nervous system: responsible for vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, digestion
  • Somatic nervous system: receives info from the senses and transmits it to the CNS - also transmits info from CNS to direct muscle movement
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9
Q

What is the role of the endocrine system?

A

Works alongside the nervous system to regulate bodily functions through the release of hormones

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10
Q

What are hormones?

A

A chemical secreted by the endocrine glands into the bloodstream which then distributes it around the body

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11
Q

What are the differences between the endocrine and nervous system?

A
  • Endocrine: chemical messengers, long-lasting effects, takes longer, more permanent and wide
  • Nervous: electrical impulses, short-lived effects, quick, localised
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12
Q

Explain the process of the fight or flight response?

A
  • The endocrine and ANS work in parallel e.g. during a parallel event
  • When a stressor is perceived the hypothalamus triggers the sympathetic nervous system and the ANS changes from its usual resting state (the parasympathetic state)
  • Adrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream resulting in the physical arousal needed for fight/flight
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13
Q

What are the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic state?

A
  • Sympathetic state- increased heart rate, increased breathing rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion etc
  • Parasympathetic state- decreases heart rate, decreases breathing rate, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion etc
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14
Q

What is localisation of function in the brain?

A

Different parts of the brain are involved in different tasks and are associated to different behaviours

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15
Q

What is the opposite of localisation of function?

A

Holism - the whole brain is implicated in behaviours and functions

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16
Q

What is the structure of the brain?

A
  • Two symmetrical hemispheres
  • Psychological & physical functions are controlled/dominated by a particular hemisphere
  • Left-side of body -> controlled by right hemisphere and vice versa
  • Outer layer - cerebral cortex - separates us from animals (more developed)
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17
Q

What are the 4 main brain centres in the cerebral cortex?

A
  • Motor area (back of frontal lobe) - controls voluntary movement on the opposite side of body
  • Somatosensory cortex (front of parietal lobe) - where information from senses (skin) is represented
  • Visual cortex (occipital lobe) - each eye sends info from left and right visual fields to left and right cortex (LVF-> right half of both your eyes + vice versa)
  • Auditory area (temporal lobe) - analyses speech based info - damage = partial hearing loss
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18
Q

Where are Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area located and what are their functions

A

Broca’s area:
- Left frontal lobe
- Speech production
- Broca’s aphasia -> slow laborious speech

Wernicke’s area:
- Left temporal lobe
- Speech comprehension
- Wernicke’s aphasia -> speech production is fine but understanding is poor

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19
Q

What are the strengths of localisation theory? (A03)

A
  • Brain scan evidence: support for localisation of language/memory - Petersen et al used brain scans to show Wernicke’s area was active in a listening task, broca’s in reading (different roles) + Tulving et al’s LTM study showed semantic & episodic reside in different parts of prefrontal -> research conducted with sophisticated & objective methods to measure brain activity
  • Neurosurgery: lobotomies used to be common (surgically removing parts of the frontal lobe) - controversially still used - Dougherty et al -> 44pts with OCD underwent a cingulotomy - 32wk follow up, 1/3 showed a successful response
  • Case-study evidence: Gage was caught in an explosion where a meter length pole was hurled through his head, tearing most of his frontal lobe - became short-tempered & aggressive -> suggests frontal is responsible for mood regulation
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20
Q

What are the weaknesses of localisation theory?

A
  • Gender differences found within research of cortical specialisation - Harasty et al found women have larger Broca’s & Wernicke’s than men - this difference makes it difficult to map specific areas
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21
Q

What is hemispheric lateralisation?

A

The idea that both hemispheres are functionally different & that certain mental processes & behaviors are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other

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22
Q

What was Sperry’s split-brain research?

A
  • A study on a group pf individuals who had undergone a comissurotomy (severing the corpus callosum to control seizures)
  • Sperry could see the extent to which 2 hemispheres were specialised for certain functions
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23
Q

What was the procedure of Sperry’s split-brain research?

A
  • An image /word was projected to a patient’s RVF (processed by LH) & the same/different image could be projected to LVF
  • Normal brain - corpus callosum would share info between hemispheres -> info couldn’t be conveyed to another in patients
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24
Q

What were the findings of Sperry’s split brain research?

A
  • Describing what you see: if image/word was flashed up in RVF, patient could say what they saw but if flashed into LVF patient reported seeing nothing + couldn’t say what they saw
  • Recognition by touch: if image flashed into RVF, could say what they saw, if flashed into LVF they couldn’t say what they saw but could blindly pick an item from a bag matching what they saw with left hand

Composite words: one flashed in LVF, other in RVF e.g. keyring -> patients could say the word ring (it’s in RVF) and used left hand t draw a key + could say key after drawing one

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25
Q

What is a strength of split brain research? (A03)

A
  • Research support: Gazzinga showed split-brain patients performed better than connected control on certain tasks - e.g. they were faster at identifying the odd one out in an array of similar objects than control -> in normal brains, the LH’s better cognitive strategies are watered down by inferior RH (Kingston et al) -> left & right brain are distinct
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26
Q

What is a weakness of split-brain research? (A03)

A
  • Generalisation issues: hard to establish cause&effect in Sperry’s research - the behaviour of Sperry’s split-brain patients was compared to a neurotypical control group (none had epilepsy was the issue - confounding variable) -> any differences observed between the 2 groups may be the result of epilepsy not split-brain -> some of the unique features of split-brain ppts cognitive abilities’ may be due to their epilepsy
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27
Q

What is a strength of hemispheric lateralisation? (A03)

A
  • Research support for lateralisation in connected brains: Fink et al used PET scans to identify which brain areas were active during a visual processing task - connected brain ppts were asked to attend to global elements of an image and regions of their RH were more active - when asked to focus in on finer details, specific areas of the LH dominated -> for visual processing, lateralisation is a feature of connected brains
28
Q

What is a weakness of hemispheric lateralisation? (A03)

A
  • One brain: the idea of the LH as analyser & RH as syntheiser may be wrong - research suggests people don’t have a dominant side of the brain that creates a different personality - Nielsen et al analysed brain scans from over 1000 people ages 7-29 + found people used certain hemispheres for certain tasks, no evidence of a dominant side -> notion of left/right-brained is people wrong
29
Q

What is plasticity?

A

This describes the brain’s tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning - generally involves the growth of new connections

30
Q

What is functional recovery?

A

A form of plasticity - following damage through trauma, the brain’s ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area to other undamaged areas

31
Q

What is synaptic pruning?

A

As we age, rarely used connections are deleted - frequently used connections are strengthened

32
Q

Describe the functions of the following main brain areas:
- Hippocampus?
- Grey matter?
- Posterior?
- Parietal cortex?

A
  • Hippocampus: helps convert STMs into LTMs & is also involved in spatial navigation, decision-making & emotion
  • Grey matter: key part of the CNS & is responsible for many functions of the brain - movement, emotions, memory learning, reasoning
  • Posterior: a posterior hippocampus is more involved in detail memories
  • Parietal cortex: movement, spatial processing, sensation etc
33
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

Fibers branching the two hemispheres together

34
Q

What is the optic chiasm?

A

The left visual field is connected to the RH and the right visual field is connected to the LH

35
Q

What research did Maguire conduct into plasticity?

A
  • Investigated the brains of London taxi drivers & found significantly more volume of grey matter in their posterior hippocampus than matched control
  • Found that the learning experience alters the structure of the brain
  • Also found that the longer the taxi driver has been in the role, the stronger the structural difference/ positive correlation
36
Q

What research did Draganski conduct into plasiticity?

A
  • Imaged the brains of medical students 3 months before and after their final exams
  • Learning-induced changes were seen to have occurred in posterior hippocampus & parietal cortex -> presumably as a result of learning
37
Q

What happens during functional brain recovery?

A
  • The brain is able to rewire & recognise itself by forming new synaptic connections close to the area of damage
  • Secondary neural pathways establish causing pathways to be activated by several structural changes:
    -> Axonal sprouting
    -> Denervation super sensitivity
    -> Recruitment of homologous
38
Q

What are the 3 structural changes that support brain recovery?

A
  • Axonal sprouting: the growth of new nerve endings that connects with other undamaged nerve cells
  • Denervation super sensitivity: occurs when axons doing similar jobs become aroused to a higher level to compensate for ones lost
  • Recruitment of homologous: similar areas on opposite sides of the brain - specific tasks can still be performed
39
Q

What are the strengths of research into plasticity? (A03)

A
  • Brain plasticity may be a life-long ability: in general plasticity reduces with age but Bezzola et al showed how 40hrs of golf training produced changes in the neural representations of movement in ppts aged 40-60 -> using fMRI researchers observed increased motor cortex activity in novice golfer than control (more efficient) -> neural plasticity can continue throughout a lifespan
  • Research support for seasonal plasticity in response to environmental changes: e.g. for the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) which regulates sleep - Tramontin & Brenowitz found evidence that this particular brain structure shrinks in all animals in spring & expands throughout autumn
40
Q

What is a weaknesses of research into plasticity? (A03)

A
  • Plasticity may have negative behavioural consequences: evidence has shown the brain’s adaptation to prolonged drug use -> poorer cognitive functioning in later life + increased dementia risk (Medina et al) - 60-80% of amputees have been known to develop phantom limb & these sensations are usually unpleasant + thought to result from cortical reorganisation in the somatosensory that occurs as a result of limb loss (Ramachrandan & Hirstein) -> plasticity not always beneficial
41
Q

What is a strength of functional recovery? (A03)

A
  • Real-world application: understanding the processes involved in plasticity has contributed to the field of rehabilitation - understanding that axonal growth is possible encourages new therapies to be tried - e.g. constraint-induced movement therapy used with stroke patients whereby they repeatedly practice using the affected part of their body while the unaffected arm is restrained -> useful for medical professionals to know when to intervene
42
Q

What are the weaknesses of functional recovery? (A03?

A
  • Cognitive reserved: level of education may influence recovery rates - Schneider et al revealed that the more time brain-injured people spent in education (indication of their cognitive reserve), the greater their chances of disability-free recovery (DFR) -> 40% of those who achieved DFR had more than 16yrs education compared to 10% who had less than 12yrs -> people with brain damage with insufficient DFR = more likely not to fully recover

Small sample: Banerjee et al treated people who had TACs with stem cells + found all ppts recovered compared to typical 4% recovery -> study drew conclusions based on just 5 ppts & no control group - typical of functional recovery research

43
Q

What is phantom limb syndrome?

A

The continued experience of sensations in the missing limb as if it were still there

44
Q

What are the 4 ways of studying the brain?

A
  • fMRI
  • EEG
  • ERP (Event-related potential)
  • Post-mortem examination
45
Q

How do fMRIs work and what do they produce?

A
  • How it works: detects changes in blood oxygenation & the flow that occur due to activity in particular parts of the brain
  • Haemodynamic response - when a brain is more active -> needs more oxygen to meet these demands & blood flows to the area in need
  • Produces: 3D imaging (activation maps) showing which parts of the brain are active during mental processes, giving understanding of localisation
46
Q

What are the strengths of using fMRIs to study the brain?

A
  • Less invasive & less harmful in comparison to other techniques such as PET scan - more ethical
  • High-quality imaging means we get a clear picture of the brain activity​
    Highly standardised ​
  • Reduces experimenter bias​
  • Uses scientific measures ​
  • High internal reliability ​
  • Universal and generalisable
47
Q

What are the weaknesses of using fMRIs to study the brain?

A
  • Very expensive ​
  • Cannot establish cause and effect just a relationship​
  • Poor temporal resolution, with a 5 second delay from picture to image on screen – lacks validity​
  • Can cause psychological and emotional stress
48
Q

How do EEGs work, what do they produce, and what are they used for?

A
  • How it works: measures the electrical activity within the brain via electrodes that are fixed to the scalp
  • Produces: the scan recording represents the brainwave patterns that are generated from action of neurons
    ​- Used for: diagnosing arrhythmic patterns of activity that may indicate neurological abnormalities such as epilepsy, tumors, sleep disorders
49
Q

What are the strengths of using EEGs to study the brain?

A
  • Usefulness in researching stages of sleep and diagnosis of conditions
  • Extremely high temporal resolution (recording in real time)​
    Easy to use and inexpensive​
  • Non-invasive, reduces ethics
50
Q

What are the weaknesses of using EEGs to study the brain?

A
  • Poor spatial resolution, lacks clarity to specific areas ​
  • Uncomfortable to wear, could cause harm ​
  • Hard to establish conclusions as many areas tend to show brain activity, hard to pinpoint specific areas
51
Q

How do ERPs work, what do they produce, and what are they used for?

A
  • ERPs use similar equipment to EEG, electrodes attached to the scalp
  • The key difference is that a stimulus is presented to a ppt (e.g. a picture/sound) & the researcher looks for activity related to that stimulus
  • ERPs are difficult to separate from all of the background EEG data, the stimulus is present many times (usually hundreds), - an average response is graphed. ​
  • This procedure, ‘averaging’, reduces any extraneous neural activity which makes the specific response to the stimulus stand out
52
Q

What are the strengths of using ERPs to study the brain?

A
  • Excellent temporal resolution (recording in real time)​
  • Most scientific in measurements​
  • Easy to use and inexpensive​
  • Non-invasive, reduces ethics ​
  • Highly reliable and generalisable
53
Q

What are the weaknesses of using ERPs to study the brain?

A
  • Poor spatial resolution, lacks clarity to specific areas ​
  • Uncomfortable to wear, could cause harm ​
  • Lack of standardisation causing experimenter bias​
  • Can lack validity due to background data
54
Q

What are post-mortem examinations and what are they used for?

A
  • What happens: involves analysis of a person’s brain following their death
  • Areas of damage within the brain are examined after death as a means of establishing the likely cause of the affliction the person experienced
  • This may also involve comparison to neurotypical brains to obtain the extent of difference.
55
Q

What are the strengths of post-mortem examinations?

A
  • Provide useful information that cannot be obtained by other techniques ​
  • Psychological, physical & emotional harm reduced​
  • Case study support: Wernicke & Broca and HM and Phineas Gage
56
Q

What are the weaknesses post-mortem examinations?

A
  • Hard to establish cause and effect ​
  • Lacks validity – external factors​
  • Issues with informed consent
57
Q

What are biological rhythms?

A
  • Biological rhythms: distinct patterns of changes in body activity that conform to cyclical time periods
  • Governed by two things: ​
    Endogenous pacemakers: The body’s internal biological clocks​
    Exogenous zeitgebers: changes in the environment
58
Q

What are circadian rhythms?

A
  • Biological rhythms, subject to a 24-hr cycle, which regulate many body processes such as the sleep/wake cycle & changes in core body temperature
59
Q

What research has been conducted into core body temperature? (circadian rhythms)

A
  • Body temp at its lowest at 4am (36) and peaks at 6pm (38)
  • Folkard et al showed how children who had stories read to them at 3 pm showed superior recall & comprehension after a week compared to children who heard the same stories at 9 am
  • Gupta found improved performances on IQ tests when ppts were assessed at 7 pm as opposed to 2 pm and 9 am
60
Q

What is the sleep/wake cycle governed by

A
  • Governed by internal endogenous pacemaker – a biological clock called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
  • Located above the optic chiasm which provides information from the eye about light
  • Exogenous zeitgebers (light) can reset the SCN
  • These biological cycles are synchronised to the daily light-dark cycle of the external environment - affects our sleep & wake times
61
Q

What study did Siffre conduct into sleep/wake cycle?

A
  • Siffre spent two months in the caves of the Southern Alps (1962) deprived of exposure to light & sound - he emerged two months after, but believed it be only 1 month
  • A decade later, he performed a similar self-study but for 6 months in a Texan cave
  • For both studies, his ‘free-running’ circadian rhythm settled down to around 25 hrs though he continued to fall asleep & wake on a regular schedule
62
Q

What research did Aschoff and Wever conduct into the sleep/wake cycle?

A
  • Similar results were recorded by Aschoff & Wever (1976) who convinced a group of ppts to spend 4 weeks in a WWII bunker deprived of natural light
  • Ppts were able to adjust to a 24/25 hour sleep/wake cycle except 1 ppt who developed a sleep/wake cycle of 29 hrs
  • Suggests the natural sleep/wake cycle may be slightly longer than 24 hrs but it is entrained by EZs associated with our 24 hr day e.g. light, meal-times etc
63
Q

What are the strengths of research into circadian rhythms? (A03)

A
  • Improved medical treatments: CRs coordinate many of the body’s basic processes e.g. heart rate, digestion - has an effect on pharmacokinetics (the action of drugs on the body + how well they are absorbed & distributed) -> research into CR has revealed that there are certain peak times during day/night when drugs are likely to be at their most effective -> led to development of guidelines to do with the timing of drug dosing for a whole range of medications including anticancer, respiratory drugs (Baraldo)
  • Practical application to shift work: knowledge of CR has given researchers a better understanding of the consequences that can occur as a result of their disruption - desynchronisation - Boivin found night shift workers experience a period of reduced concentration around 6am -> mistakes & accidents are more likely - research has also suggested a link between shift work & poor health – Knutson found shift workers are 3 times more likely to develop heart disease (stress of adjusting to different sleep/wake cycles or poor quality sleep during the day -> economic implications for how best to manage worker productivity
64
Q

What are the weaknesses of research into circadian rhythms? (A03)

A
  • Use of case studies/small samples: Studies of the sleep/wake cycle tend to involve small samples (Aschoff & Wever or Siffre - only studied himself) - in most of his recent cave experiment, Siffre at age 60 reported that his internal clock ticked much slower than when he was a young man -> people involved may not be representative of wider population - limits the extent to which generalisations can be made + Siffre himself reported that even when the same person is involved, there are factors that vary which may prevent conclusions to be drawn
  • Poor control in studies: Although ppts in the studies discussed were deprived of natural light, still had access to artificial light, e.g. Siffre turned on a light every time he woke up which remained on until he went to bed – was assumed by him & others that artificial light, unlike daylight, would have no effect on the free-running CR - however, Czeisler et al. were able to adjust ppts’ CR from 22 -> 28 hours using dim lighting - light is a confounding variable - low validity
65
Q

What is the difference between ultradian and infradian rhythms?

A

Psychology (9 decks)

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