Relationships

Question 1

Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences - AO1

Answer 1

• Darwin - a reproductive advantage opposed to a survival advantage
• Intrasexual selection - people of one sex (normally males) must outcompete other members of their sex to gain access to members of the other sex - losers don’t mate and don’t pass on their genes
• Intersexual selection - members of one sex evolve preferences for desirable qualities in potential mates - the members who then have these qualities gain mating advantage
• Sexual selection and long term mate preferences - more unhealthy and unattractive mates will produce offspring that also has these negative qualities - males would be most attracted to women who display signals of fertility

Question 2

Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences (study) - AO1

Answer 2

• 10,000 people from 37 countries
• Ppts asked to rate each of 18 characteristics in how important they would be in choosing mates (scale of 0-3)
• Main results were - resources, physical attractiveness, youth, other important characteristics (intelligence)

Question 3

Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences - AO3

Answer 3

• Research suggests preference varies across menstrual cycle - female mate choice changes with each stage of cycle - long term relationship = men with a more feminine - therefore supports evolutionary explanation of mate preference
• Cultural traditions are equally as important - researcher points out that gender diffs may be due to cultures rather than evolved characteristics - example - research shows women valued economic resources in mates far more in those cultures where womens status and educational opportunites were limited - suggests we should not underestimate role of social and economic factors
• Research suggests some traits have evolved and serve no survival purpose - example - preference for a highly creative person has been a preference throughout evolutionary history - 2 researchers compared sample of british poets and artists and control group of men in non creative professions - males in creative group had more sexual partners

Question 4

Physical attractiveness - AO1

Answer 4

• Buss - research on preferences in diff cultures - men in particular place great importance on physical attractiveness - cue to womans fertility and health
• Matching hypothesis - when initiating romantic relationships people seek partners who social desirability approx equals their own - must first assess their own then select candidates
• matching hypothesis - suggests people pair up with those who are similar in physical attractiveness - researcher referred to these mating choices as realistic choices as people are influenced by the chances of having their affection reciprocated

Question 5

Physical attractiveness - AO1 - Key study

Answer 5

• advertised computer dance for new students at a uni in US
• 177 males n 170 females randomly chosen
• when came to collect tickets student accomplices rated them for physical attractiveness
• ppts asked to complete questionnaire and told results would give them ideal partner
• during intermission had to complete another questionnaire n 6months after a 3rd one
• results did not support matching hypothesis
• once ppts met their dates and regardless of their own attractiveness they responded more positively to physically attractive dates and were more likely to try too arrange dates with them if they were physically attractive

Question 6

Physical attractiveness - AO3

Answer 6

• Matching is more complex than just physical attractiveness - 2 researchers suggest why people can’t find evidence of matching just on physical attractiveness is that a person may have diff qualities - a person may compensate for a lack of physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities like personality
• Research support for sex differences in importance of physical attractiveness - if physical attractiveness is most important for men then they should be more satisified if they have this - researcher provided support - husbands relationship satisfaction was positively related to objective ratings of their wives PA at beginning and at least for 4 years
• Speed dating and the challenge to traditional views of attraction - 2 researchers claim that although men may prefer PA more than women it doesn’t predict real life partner choices - prior to speed dating sessions ppts showed traditional sex diffs - but - these preferences didn;t predict actual behaviour before and after event - suggests there is no significant sex diffs

Question 7

Self disclosure - AO1

Answer 7

• research found level of self disclosure received in a relationship was a better predictor of liking and loving than the level of disclosure given (predictor of 4+year relationships) - related to relationship stability
• diff types of self disclosure - researchers found its not self disclosure that predicts satisfaction but type - researcher found disclosure of accomplishments and disappointments have greater influence
• Norms of self disclosure - one norm is people should engage in only a moderately personal level of disclosure in the early stage - people possess a norm of reciprocity concerning disclosure

Question 8

Self disclosure - AO3

Answer 8

• Cultural diffs in patterns of disclosure - cultures differ in extent to which various topics are considered ok - in the west - people tend to engage in more intimate self disclosure - researcher found women in Japan showed less preference for disclosure than men - suggests importance of disclosure as an attraction moderated by influence of culture
• Disclosure may be better face to face rather than online - researcher challenges assumption people self disclose more in online relationships than face to face - found people disclose more face to face than online - may be due to the lack of intimacy of the internet
• Research support for disclosure - meta analysis by 2 researchers showed importance for disclosure - people who engage in intimate disclosures are liked more than people who disclose at lower levels - relationship between disclosure and liking was stronger when the person believed it was shared with only them - supports the centeral role disclosure plays in the development and maintainance of relationships

Question 9

Filter theory - AO1

Answer 9

• 2 researchers suggest we choose partners by using a series of filters that narrow down the field of alternatives - in early stages - similarity of attitudes and values become important
• Social demography - age, background, location etc. - these are people we feel more at ease with and find more attractive as we have more in common
• Similarity in attitudes and values - centeral importance at start of relationship and predictor of relationship being stable
• Complimentary of needs - people are attracted to others whose needs are harmonius with their own - finding someone who compliments their needs ensures their own needs are likely to be met

Question 10

Filter theory - AO3

Answer 10

• Lack of research support - a researcher failed to replicate the davis and kerkchoff study - study of 330 couples who were steadily attached he found no evidence that either similarity of attitudes/values or complimentary of needs influenced progress towards permanence in relationships - suggests the questionnaires may not have been appropriate in the previous study
• Complimentary of needs may not be that important - 2 researchers studied 760 male and female singles who were looking for a long term mate - initially ppts said desired a complimentary partner rather than a similar one - there were strong correlations between own and ideal partners personality - this supports the similarity attraction hypothesis instead of the complimentary hypothesis
• The filtering process has value - stops people from investing in relationships that wont work - each person discloses some information about themselves and can decide whether to carry on with the relationship or not - suggests value of this process is stops people making the wrong decisions in relationships

Question 11

Social exchange theory - AO1

Answer 11

• Profit and loss - people exchange resources with the expectation that rewards received will exceed the costs incurred - rewards maybe companionship and physical resources - money
• Comparison level - a standard against which all our relationships are judged a product of experiences in other relationships and general views of what we might expect from this relationship
  
  • relationship more likely to be sucessful if both partners perceived profits are above their CL
  • if potential profit in new relationship exceeds our CL the other person will be seen as attractive
• Comparison level for alternatives (CLA) - a person may weigh up a potential increase in rewards from a different partner and minus costs associated with ending the current relationship
  
  • if benefits of being in new relationship are high and costs of leaving are currently low then person be tempted to leave current relationship

Question 12

Social exchange theory - AO3

Answer 12

• Evidence for influence of comparison level for alternatives - researcher claimed exchange variable most highly associated with relationship commitment was partners comparison level for alternatives - showed that when CLA was high commitment to and satisfaction with current relationship was low - suggests those who lack alternatives are likely to remain committed
• Real world application - people in unsuccessful marriages frequently report a lack of positive behaviour exchanges with their partner and an excess of negative exchanges - IBCT attempts to increase the proportion of positive exchanges and decrease proportion of negative exchanges
• Problem assessing value - 2 researchers argue social exchange may not be relevant to personal relationships - value is difficult to determine as is the relative value of costs and benefits to individuals - not the case in commercial and economic relationships - suggests vagueness means the theory is less able to explain personal relationships

Question 13

Equity theory - AO1

Answer 13

• Inequity and dissatisfaction - theory assumes that people are most satisfied when they perceive that what they get out of the relationship is equal to what they put in
  
  • theory says - where one persons benefits minus their costs equals their partners
  • if people feel over benefitted it can lead to feelings of guilt/sadness/pity
• A timetable - of equity and inequity in marriages -

Question 14

Equity theory - Key study

Answer 14

• 2 researchers explored how equity and satisfaction predicted the use of maintainence strategies used in marriage
• over 200 married couples completed measures of equity and relationship satisfaction - also asked about use of relationship m.strategies as assurance
• satisfaction was highest for people who perceived their relationships to be equitable followed by over benefitted partners and then under benefitted
• relationship between equity and marital happiness was complimentary - people who were treated equitably were happier and were more likely to engage in behaviours linked to their partners happiness

Question 15

Equity theory - AO3

Answer 15

• Gender diffs - researcher points out that women and men are not equally affected by inequality within a relationship - womens greater relationship focus may make them more sensitive to injustice - women see themselves as more underbenefitted compared to men - this is important because women are more likely to be vigilant about inequity and react negatively to being exploited
• Cultural diffs - concept of equity may not be as important in non western cultures - however a researcher found in all cultures studied everyone considered it important that a relationship is equitable - US people - claimed to be in more equitable and Jamaica less so - this is important because it shows people in diff cultures differ in how equitable they think their relationship is
• Problem of causality - the nature of the causal relationship between inequity and dissatisfaction isnt clear - researcher claims dissatisfaction is cause not consequence however another researcher contradicts this by finding that people in inequitable marriages became less satisfied over the course of a year with no evidence of the converse - 2 researchers suggest that when marriages are faltering partners become preoccupied with the inequities of the relationship and this can lead to dissolution

Question 16

The investment model of relationships - Ao1

Answer 16

• Satisfaction level - balance of positive v negative emotions experienced within a relationship determined by extent to which other person fufils the persons important needs
• Quality of alternatives - the extent to which persons needs might be better filled outside relationship
• Investment size - measure of all resources attached to relationship which might be lost if the relationship ends - creates pyschological inducement to stay in a relationship
• Commitment level - commitment is high in partners who have high levels of satisfaction and investment and low quality of alternatives

Question 17

Investment model - Key study

Answer 17

• Meta analysis of studies that explored the diff components of investment model and relationship between them
• A total sample of over 11,000 participants from 5 countries (54% males - rest females)
• Across all studies satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment size were highly correlated with relationship commitment
• Correlation between satisfaction level and commitment was strongest - lower levels of commitment meant more likely for a person to leave the relationship

Question 18

Investment model - AO3

Answer 18

• Importance of commitment as indicator of stability backed up - researcher carried out a meta analysis from 137 studies and results were in line with the predictions of the model, commitment was a strong predictor of whether a relationship would break up - however - satisfaction, quality of alternatives and investment size were only modest predictors of likelihood
• Problem of measuring commitment in a relationship and variables related to this - researcher developed investment model scale to overcome problem - was found to be high in reliability and validity - however potential problem is it relies on self report measures - possibility of bias
• Real world application - model able to explain why people may stay within an abusive relationship - victims of partner abuse experience low satisfaction but stay in relationship maybe because they lack alternatives or have invested too much into that partner - in real world validation 2 researchers found alternatives and investments predicted whether abused woman stayed or not

Question 19

Relationship breakdown (4 phases) - AO1

Answer 19

• Breakdown - when one of partners becomes dissatisfied
• Intrapyschic phase - characterised by a brooding focus on the relationship and a consideration of whether they may be better of out of it - person may not say anything to their partner about it but may become withdrawn
• Dyadic phase - people confront their partners and discuss their discontentment and future of their relationship - relationship may be saved if both partners are determined to resolve issues
• Social phase - dissatisfaction spills over to friends and family who may take sides or actually help - going public makes it harder to deny there is problems and then harder for them to bring reconciliation
• Grave dressing phase - partners construct representation of the failed relationship that does not paint their contribution to it in unfavourable terms - each partner attempts to justify their actions and present themselves as being loyal - important if they are to attract new partner

Question 20

Relationship breakdown - AO3

Answer 20

• Ethical issues - carrying out research within this area raises issues of vulnerability and privacy - the impact of this research on ppts needs to be considered - its difficult when dealing with ppts coping with trauma or emotional distress - important because researchers need to think about whether ppts best interests are considered
• Fails to acknowledge personal growth possibility following breakdown - a new model with a final ressurection phase stresses opportunity to move beyond distress associated with ending of a relationship and instead engage in process of personal growth - theres support for the new phase - undergrads who had recently had a breakup reported that had not just experienced emotional distress but personal growth too
• Benefits of grave dressing - research supports importance of grave dressing in dealing with after effects - 2 researchers found people are able to feel better about ending a relationship when they focus on how the situation was to blame instead of their flaws - this is important because people able to create stories that play down their role played

Question 21

Virtual relationships in social media - Self disclosure - AO1

Answer 21

• People excersise different levels of disclosure online than with romantic partners - disclosure in public means the person shows an edited version of themselves
• People feel more secure about disclosing intimate things in private
• People may compensate for lack of control over target audience by excersing increased control over what info they present
• Anonymity - reduces risks disclosure as people can share inner thoughts with less fear of disapproval - more likely to disclose personal info to strangers as they dont have access to social circle so confidentiality less of a problem

Question 22

Virtual relationships in social media - Absence of gating - AO1

Answer 22

• In FTF relationships we use available features like attractiveness or age to categorise potential partners - in online there is absence of this that would otherwise limit opportunities for the less attractive, more shy etc.
• Absence of gating and consequences;
  • persons true self more likely to be active in virtual
  • reduction of gating obstacles allows people to stretch truth to an extent to project a more socially desirable personality
  • researcher found online daters tended to give accounts of both their real and better selves in dating profiles as a way of attracting potential partners

Question 23

Virtual relationships in social media - AO3

Answer 23

• Absence of gating factors been demonstrated in research - uni students engaged in 2 20 min meetings with a partner - interacted in a chatroom first then FTF - it was initial quality of interaction that determined subsequent liking - not the case when interacting FTF - important as its consistent with notion that in FTF contact its more superficial gating features that dominate liking
• Virtual relationships can be as strong as offline ones - suggested online not as rich as offline - believed relationships are of lower quality online and more temporary - however 2 researchers found no difference in quality of relationship nor was one or the other more fragile
• Fb helps shy people have better quality friendships - 2 researchers found that students who scored high for shyness greater use of fb was associated with higher perceptions of friendship quality and vice versa for people low in shyness - suggests that through social media shy people are able to overcome barriers they face when trying to form FTF relationships

Question 24

Parasocial relationships - Attachment theory explanation - AO1

Answer 24

• May function similarly to real life relationships as relationships with tv personalities show the properties of adult attachment
• Proximity seeking - fans exhibit many proximity seeking behaviours between themselves and their attachment figure
• Secure base - with a psr where there is little or no chance of rejection from the attachment figure the person is able to create a base where they can explore other relationships in a safe way
• Protest at disruption - example - the bbcs axing of jeremy clarkson from top gear was met by the emotion typical of the loss of an attachment figure
• People with an anxious ambivalent attachment style were most likely to enter into PSRs with their fave tv personalities
• Avoidant people were least likely to enter PSRs - appears to avoid not just relational intimacy but imagined intimacy too

Question 25

Parasocial relationships - Absorption addiction model - AO1

Answer 25

• PSRs may be appealing to some because there is no risk of criticism or rejection
• 3 levels in the celebrity attitude scale
• Entertainment -social - fans are attracted to a fav celebrity and will watch keep up with and read about them for entertainment and gossip
• Intense personal - involves deeper levels of involvement and reflects intensive feelings about the celebrity
• Borderline pathlogical - people identify with the celebritys sucesses and failures - they may over identify with them and display uncontrollable behaviours and fantasies
• Researcher suggests the initial interest and development of PSR is through absorption which can turn into an addiction where someone displays more extreme behaviours to sustain satisfaction

Question 26

Parasocial relationships - AO3

Answer 26

• Research support from researcher for factors that are instrumental in formation of PSRs - found people with higher levels of PSR also watched more tv - the likelihood of forming PSR with a celeb was linked to characters perceived attractiveness and similarities - consequence is that the loss of a character may lead to feelings of bereavement
• PSRs linked to lonliness - they are believed to be a sub for real relationships and therefore links to lonliness - 2 researchers found that people may develop PSRs as a way of dealing with feelings of lonliness or loss - however 2 researchers found evidence of lonliness after a parasocial breakup - suggests that PSrs may compensate for feeling of lonliness but breakups can also lead to that feeling
• Loss of a PSR can be linked to attachment type - researcher supported the claim that viewers would show the same negative response to a loss of a PSR and a real relationship - viewers expecting to lose their fav character anticipated negative reactions related to emotions experienced after a loss of a close relationship - study supported influence of attachment style with anxious ambivalent experiencing most negative emotions