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1
Q

What is sexual selection

A

That evolution is driven by competition for mates and it leads to development of characterises that ensure reproductive success

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2
Q

What is meant by evolutionary explanations

A

They state that behaviour is adaptive and that behaviour has evolved since our ancestors and it’s being more widespread in the gene pool

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3
Q

What is anisogamy

A

It’s the difference between male and female gamates and it leads to inter and intrasexual selection

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4
Q

What is intra sexual selection

A

This is that individuals of one sex must outcompete members of their own sea in order to gain access to the other sex those that are successful at able to mat which means they pass on their genes

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5
Q

What is intersexual selection

A

This is that members of one sex have preferences for desirable qualities in potential mates

Ie resources financial security

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6
Q

Give 4 evaluation points for sexual selection and evolutionary explanations

A

Buss 1989

Clark and Hatfield

Penton voak

Nettle and Craig

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7
Q

Describe the procedure and state the findings of buss study and how it supports theory of sexual selection

A

They asked 10,000 people from 37 cultures were asked 18 characteristics and how important they are in choosing a mate

They found women desired a man with good resources like financial prospects

Men preferred women who were younger and where physical attractive as it provides cues to her health and fertility

Strength as it supports the concept of inter sexual selection and that we develop preferences for our ideal choice of mate plus it’s universal as it tested s range of cultures so it’s also valid

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8
Q

State the findings of Clark and Hatfield experiment and how it supports sexual selection

A

They approached both males and females and asked if they would have go on a date, go back to their apartment,have sex with them

Men 50%,69% apartment,75%sex
Females 50%,6% apartment 0% sex

Strength as it supports the fact that females are choosy in selecting a mate which is in accordance to sexual selection,this is due to anisogmy and the fact they have limited supply of eggs so they must be selective

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9
Q

What has research by proton voak et al shown about female mate choice

A

They found that the menstrual cycle plays a key role in female mate choice

During their fertile period of the cycle they prefer a masculine face

But during other stages they prefer a slightly feminised male face as they want a long term relationship

Shows that female mate choice is down to biological factors which maybe universal

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10
Q

What did nettle and Clegg find in their study and how does it support sexual selection

A

They compared a sample of British poets and artists and a control group of males in non creative professions

They found males tended to have more sexual partners if they were in creative professions and their amount of creative output and was positively correlated with the number of sexual partners

Strength as It shows some traits that don’t have survival purpose evolve due to sexual selection and they can serve as a reproduce advantage and they encourage females to be attract e to them in the hope their offspring inherit the adaptive value of creativity being passed onto them(highlights reproductive success)

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11
Q

What is the matching hypothesis

A

It states when we look for partner for a romantic relationship we look for someone’s who’s social desirability equals our own approximately

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12
Q

What did buss state about the importance of physical attractiveness

A

He said men place a great importance of physical attractiveness as it provides a cue to a women’s health and fertility

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13
Q

In the matching hypothesis how do we try and find a match for us

A

We assess ourselves first in the eyes of the potential partner and then we select the best candidates who will be attracted to us

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14
Q

State the link between the matching hypothesis and physical attractiveness

A

This is that we will match with people whose physical attractiveness is similar to us

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15
Q

Give evaluation points for the matching hypothesis

A

Walster et al
Taylor et al - online interaction
Metlzer et al-sex differences in physical attractiveness

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16
Q

Describe the procedure in walster et al and explain the results and how they go against the matching hypothesis

A

Procedure 177 males and 170 females were selected randomly and where rated for physical attractiveness

They were told to complete a questionnaire to asses qualities and they used this to allocate an ideal partner for the dance

During the intermission they were told to complete a questionnaire about their dates

They found that the findings didn’t support the matching hypothesis and that they only liked their dates on their physical attractiveness alone regardless of how themselves looked

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17
Q

Explain the findings of meltzer et al and how it supports matching hypothesis and physical attractiveness

A

They found in objective ratings of Wives attractiveness were related positively to levels of husbands satisfaction at the start of marriage

But in females it wasn’t the same

It’s a strength as it supports the view that males place greater value on physical attractiveness when choosing a mate as it provides a cue to their fertility and reproductive value

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18
Q

State the findings from Taylor et al and how it goes against the matching hypothesis

A

They found no evidence that the descion of daters were based on them having similarity between their physical attractiveness and potential partners in online dating patterns

They found evidence that people prefer attractive partners which suggests we don’t take our own PA into account

Contradicts the theory of matching hypothesis

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19
Q

What is meant by self disclosure

A

When an individual reveals intimate personal details about themselfves to someone else

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20
Q

What has research shown about self disclosure shown is the most important factor

A

That it’s reciprocity meaning that the amount of sd given should be the amount received

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21
Q

State what research has are the most important types of SD

A

Research has shown disclosure or personal achievers,past relationships are more effective in stabilising a relationship and not neutral forms of SD

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22
Q

What are the norms of self disclosure

A

That in the early stages moderate self disclosure should be disclosed

Because too much can make it seem your indiscriminate to who you share personal info with

To little mean the partner won’t get to know you

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23
Q

Give 4 evaluation point for self disclosure

A

Sprecher et al

Cultural differences

Knop et al

Collins and miller

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24
Q

Describe the procedure in sprecher et al and state the findings and how it supports SD

A

They placed participants into two dyads reciprocal and non reciprocal

They exchanged sd over Skype in the reciprocal condition participants took turns in asking questions and disclosing

In the non reciprocal condition one person asked question the other would disclosed

They found in the reciprocal conditions individuals reported more liking,closeness,perceived similarity and enjoyment of interaction than those in the non reciprocal group

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25
Describe the findings of Collins and miller and how it supports sd
They found people who engage in intimate disclosure tend to be liked more than who disclose at Lower levels and people like others as s result of disclosing to them They also found s relationship between disclosure and liking and that it was stronger if the recipient believed the disclosure was only shared with them
26
State the findings of knop et al and how it relates to SD (use for reduced cues as support
They found that members of social groups disclose personal info more often in face to face than in online interaction and they disclose more intimate info as well The reason for this ie the lack of intimacy of the internet due to the absence of non verbal cues ie eye contact Shows sd is better in real life and not online
27
State what cultural differences have shown by SD (AO3
That in western societies they engage in more intimate self disclosure compared to non Westerns Cultural norms are also important nakanshi found Japanese women prefer lower levels of SD in comparison to Japanese men in western cultures ie the opposite
28
What is the filter theory and state the 3 components
This theory states we choose romantic relationships by using a series of filters that narrow down the field of available s which we make a choice Social demography Similarity in attitudes Complementary needs
29
What is meant by social demography
It refers to variables like age,social background,ethinicity and location that determine the likelihood of people meeting in the first place
30
What is meant by similarity of attitudes in the filter theory
It's that the relationship is more likely to progress if people share similar beliefs and attitudes
31
What is complementary of needs
This refers to how well two people meet one another's needs and fit as a couple
32
Give 4 evaluation points for the filter theory
Kerchoff and Davis-strength Levinger et al-limitation Dikstra and Barelds The theory is outdated
33
Describe the procedure and state the results of kerckhoff and Davis findings
They gave 94 couples 2 questionnaires to complete one which assessed the degree to which they share attitudes and values and the degree of need of complementarity They found that couples whose relationships were less than 18 months valued similarity of attitudes and values as being the most significant predictor in how they felt For long term couples only complementary of needs was predictive of how closely they felt to one another
34
What where levinger et al findings and how is it a weakness of the filter theory
330 couples in their study did the same procedure as in kerchoff and Davis they found no evidence that similarity of attitudes and values or complementary of needs had influenced progression in relationships They also found that no significant relationship between the length of people's relationship and influence of different variables Highlights k and d experiment and results aren't replicable and that the filter theory's lacks sufficient evidence for influence of these variables in a relationship
35
What dijkstra and bareilds find in their study and how is it a strength of the filter theory
They studied 760 college educated singles on a dating site There personalities were measured and they were asked to rate the personality characteristics of their desired ideal mate They found strong correlation between individual own personality and their ideal patterns personality Strengths highlights we prefer people that have similar attitudes to ourselves
36
State how the theory is outdated and how is it a limitation of the filter theory
Components of the theory like social demography don't play a part in if we start s relationship, online Relationships and transport mean we can find partners that aren't necessarily in our demography Highlights the theory is backward
37
What is the social exchange theory
Its that the likelihood of an individual staying in a relationship is down to an assessment of what they get out (benefits) in comparison to what they put in (costs)
38
State the 3 parts of the social exchange theory
Profit and loss Comparison level Comparison level of alternatives
39
What is meant by profit and loss in the social exchange theory
It's that people attempt to maximise their rewards and minimise their cost Ie benefit is sex Cost- housework It stresses that commitment to a relationship is dependant on the profitability of this outcome
40
What is the comparison level
This is that we judge all of our relationship against a standard ie past experiences in other relationships
41
What is comparison level for alternatives
When an individual weighs up a potential increase in rewards from a different partner against the cost of ending their current relationship If the anticipated profit level is higher then the person will leave their current relationship
42
Give 4 evaluation points for social exchange theory
Sprecher et all 2001 Hard to distinguish between cost and benefit (interchangeable) Kurdek and Schmrit Real world application
43
Describe the findings and procedure for sprecher et all 2001
In a longitudinal study of 101 dating couples they found that the exchange variable most associated with relationship commitment was a partners comparison level for alternatives They found that ClA was consistently and negatively correlated with both commitment and relationship satisfaction in males and females Strength as it show how ClA have a powerful influence on an individual relationship that it has s potentially detrimental effect
44
State a weakness of the social exchange theory and describe how it's an issue
There's confusion of what will constitute a cost and benefit in a relationship ie what maybe seen as rewarding for one person ie constant(money being provided) maybe seen as punishing for the other partners ie lack of independence financial Also benefits and costs change over stages in a relationship due to reducing ie initial constant attention was a benefit but now cost as it's seen as irritating Weakness as it's interchangeable
45
Describe how the procedure and findings of kurdek and schmritt and how it's a strength of the social exchange theory
They investigated the importance of social exchange factors in determining quality of relationships in 185 couples They found for each couple greater relationship satisfaction and as was associated with The perception of many benefits of their current relationship Seeing alternatives to the current relationship as less attractive Strength as it shows it's a universal approach that can be applied to all types of relationship
46
How is there real world application for the social exchange theory A03
In the form of ICBt in which they try to decrease the proportion of negative exchanges and increase the proportion of positive exchanges,it helps partners break negative behaviour patterns that cause these issues the effectiveness is seen christens et al treated 60 couples and found about 2/3 reported significant improvements Strengh as it show how it's been used in real life and how it's benefitting others
48
What is the equity theory
It states people are most comfortable when their benefits are roughly balanced with their costs
49
When does dissatisfaction occur in a relationship in terms of equity
It occurs when relationships lack equity ie someone is over benefitted they may feel guilty/ashamed or have pity If underbenfited they may feel anger
50
Give 4 evaluation points for the equity theory
Stafford and canary Gender differences,Demaris et al Waal Cultural differences in importance of equity (Ahmed-Ryan)
51
Describe the procedure of Stafford and canary and how it's a strength of the equity theory
They asked 200 married couples to complete measure of equity and satisfaction of relationship They found satisfaction was highest for Rhodes who perceived their relationships as equitable followed by over benefitted partners,then under benefitted They also found spouses who were treated equitable tended to be happier and where more likely to engage in behaviours that contributed to there partners sense of happiness and equity Strength as it show equity is beneficial in having a successful and harmonious relationship
52
Describe the findings of research that has shown gender differences in equity
Demaris et al stated men and women aren't equally affected by inequity Women tend to believe they are more under benfited in comparison to men and are annoyed by their Sprecher also found that women feel more guilty than man when they are overbenfitted Shows that men and women are different in terms of equity standard
53
Describe the procedure and findings of Waals study
They found that female capuchin monkeys became very angry if they were denied grapes in return for playing a game,and if a monkey who had played no part in the game received grapes instead they would get very angry and throw grapes at the experimenter Shows the importance of equity and that dissatisfaction may lead to aggressive behaviour Issue is experiment was conducted on animals which are differnt from humane so findings can't be extrapolated
54
Describe research that shows cultural differences in equity
Ahmet and Ryan in the cultures they studied people considered equitability as important but they found people in these cultures differed in how equitable they viewed their own relationship to be Men and women stated their relationship were the most equitable,unlike men and women in Jamacia who claimed their relationships to be least equitable
55
What did Hatfield and rapson state that stages in relationships depends on
In intial stages of a relationship,rewards,fairness and equity are important But as couples are deeply committed to one another they become less concerned with equity
56
Give two explanations for physical attractiveness
Matching hypothesis | And halo effect
57
What is the halo effect
It's a cognitive bias which happens because an individual believes that because a person has a pleasing appearance they have positive traits in terms of personality
58
What is the investment model of relationships
A model that explains relationship stability is determined by satisfaction,investment,quality of alternatives which determine how committed someone is to their relationship
59
What is satisfaction level
It's a measure of the degree to which the current partner gratifies a persons important needs which leads to persons positive/negative feelings
60
What is quality of alternatives in the investment model
This is an individuals assessment of if their needs may be fulfilled by someone other than there current partner If they believe this to be true they may leave their current relationship and pursue the alternative
61
What is investment size
This contributes to the stability of a relationship it's the measure of the resources that are attached to a relationship which may be lost or diminished if the relationship where to end
62
What is commitment level
It's used to describe if an individual will stay in a relationship It's determined by satisfaction/investment and quality of alternatives If satisfaction and investment is high and their is low quality of alternatives then commitment is high
63
Give 4 evaluation points for investment model
Le and Agnew strength Le et al strength Real world application Issues with measuring variable
64
Describe the procedure carried out by le and Agnew and state how it supports the investment model
They carried out a meta analysis of 52 studies in which each study explained the different components of the investment model and the relationship between them They found that satisfaction level quality of alternatives investment size or highly correlated with relationship commitmentThe correlation between satisfaction level and commitment was 0.68 I was stronger than the relationship between commitment and quality of alternatives which is 0.48 and investment size of 0.46
65
Describe the procedure by le et al and how it supports the investment model
They analyse data from nearly 38,000 participants in 137 studies in order to find key variables that predicted staying and leaving in a relationship they found that commitment especially with the strongest predictor of if a relationship would last strength as it supports the importance of commitment as an indicator relationships ability
66
State how methodological issues are problem with the investment model Ao3
One issue the investment model is that it is difficult to measure commitment and the other variables that lead to relationships Furthermore there are methodological issues with research that measures these variables some of them are correlational and issue this is that they show that they are linked but not that one causes the other could be other factors It also requires the use of self report which leads to bias in the form of social desirability and the research is subjective Issues with validity of data
67
Explain how there is real world application explaining abusive relationships in the investment model
The use of the investment model enables us to see why some people remain in Abusive relationships For example lack of alternatives and too much investment with their partner makes dissolution to costly ie home,finances Rusbt found that alternatives and investment were a strong indicator of If s battered women at a shelter remained committed to their partners
68
State the 5 stages of relationship breakdown in ducks model
Breakdown Intrapsychic phase dyadic phase social phase grave dressing phase
69
Describe what happens in the breakdown phase and state the threshold associate through that phase
it is the first stage and it's that one partner becomes distressed/dissatisfied with the relationship Threshold I can't stand this anymore
70
State what the intrapsychic is and state the threshold associated with this stage is called
This stage is characterised by brooding of the relationship and they start to consider if they should remain in the relationship they feel underbenfitted and express discomfort through social withdrawal Threshold-I'd be justified in withdrawing
71
State what the dyadic phases and the threshold associated with it
This is when the individual confronts the partner and the discuss their feelings which is a dissatisfaction and the future of their relationship Threshold-I mean it (May seek martial therapy
72
What is the social phase. and the threshold associated with it
This is when the discontent is made public with family and friends aware of the issues and relationship via social media and reconciliation hard Threshold it's inevitable now
73
What is grave dressing and state the threshold its associated with
This after the break The partner justify their actions and tries to portray themselves in a more favourable light they present themselves in a way that doesn't paint their contribution in the failed relationship badly Time to get a new life
74
Give 4 evaluation points for relationship breakdown
Tashiro and Frazier-benefits of grave dressing Real world application Ethical issues Underdeveloped theory
75
Describe what tashiro and Frazier found and how it supports the relationship breakdown
They found that people are able to feel better about a relationship breakdown when they focus on instead the situation and how it was the cause of the break up and not their own flaws Strength as it shows the benefits of grave dressing and by the individual down playing their role in the break up they don't risk their psychological well being by constantly blaming themselves
76
State how ducks model can be applied to the real world
It stresses the importance of communication and that interventions by the family and friend can play a key role in maintaining a relationship Ie in the dyadic phase repair can occur by viewing The partner in a more positive light like the things they do well In later stages ie social phase intervention by family and friends is appropriate as they can help partners patch up their differences Strength shoes how break up can be prevented via intervention
77
How are ethical issues a problem with ducks model and in the break down process Ao3
It raises particularly issues of vulnerability ie participants may feel distress by revisiting these issues Privacy as these issues are ones of an intense interpersonal nature and issues with confidentially,especially in abusive relationships Limitation as psychologists may not have the participants best interests at heart when conducting this type of research making it hard to investigate
78
State how the model has been redeveloped
A 5th stage has been added which is resurrection where people take experiences and knowledge from previous relationships and apply it to future relationship Highlights it was previously underdeveloped
79
What are the two theories about self disclosure in virtual relationships and describe what they state
Reduced cues theory- it states that CMC is less effective than FtF in self disclosure due to the lack of cues that are present in these interactions Hyperpersonal model-this model states that online relationships result in greater self disclosure
80
What is the reduced cues theory
It's states that CMC is less effective than ftf This is because of the lack cues that are present in these interactions There's a lack of non verbal cues ie eye contact and emotional cues facial expressions,tone of voice
81
What is deindividuation
When as s result of reduced cues there's s reduction in a persons sense of individual identity
82
What does the hyper personal model state
It argues that online relationships can be more personal and have greater self disclosure
83
What two components are of the hyperpersonal model
Selective self respresentation Anominitity
84
What is selective self representation
It's that people control the cues they send and choose meaning they can represent themselves in a more positive light meaning it's easier to manipulate SD and intimacy
85
What is anominitiy in hyperpersonal model
It's that people feel less accountable for what they discuss and how they behave meaning they can self disclose more as the recover doesn't knw them
86
What is absence of gatting in virtual relationships
It's that in virtual relationships due to absence of obstacles like shyness It enables self disclosure to become deeper and frequent
87
Give examples of gates
Physical unattractiveness Social anxiety Stammered
88
Give 4 evaluation points for virtual relationships
Walster-Contradiction of the reduced cues theory Whitty and joinson McKenna and Burgh Knop et al
89
State the findings of walster and Lisa Tidwell
They found evidence to contradict the reduced cues theory that there's an absent cues They stated in online interactions uses other cues like style and time of their messages ie taking time in online convo is seen as intimate Furthermore facial expressions are replaced with emojis and are effective provides contradictory evidence for reduced cues in online convo as it's shows they are simply expressed In different ways
90
What did whitty and joinson find and how does it support the hyperpersonal model
They found that questions in online discussions were direct,intiamate and probing in comparison to face to face which small talk often occurs furthermore in CMC the response are direct and to the point These findings that due to the nature online relationships SD is administered faster and is more intimate meaning it's more effective than face to face
91
State how McKenna and Burgh supports in absence of gatting
They found when socially anxious and lonely people used CMC they were able to express themselves more than in face to face scenarios and the relationships formed online 70% last more than 2 years higher than offline world relationships and
92
What are parasocial relationships
When an individual is attracted to another person(celebrity) who is often unaware of their existence
93
State 3 properties of a parasocial relationship that are similar to a normal attachment
Proximity seeking-this is when the individual aims to reduce the distance between themselves and their attachment figure Write fan mail follow them on twitter or rearrange schedules to see them Secure base-the presence of attachment provides the individual with a sense of security due to their being a small chance of rejection from the attachment so they can create a secure base Protest at disruption- this is prolonged distress as a result of separation/loss of the attachment figure
94
Give the two explanations for parasocial relationships
Absorption-addiction model Attachment explanations
95
What attachment type is most likely to form insecure attachment and why
They found people with a insecure resistant trait were lost likely to enter a parasocial relationship Because they want to satisfy their unrealistic and unmet relational needs that parasocial relationships reflect their desire for intimacy
96
Give reasons why people form PSR
Shy/lonely It require less demands of the person People lack real relationships in real life
97
What is perception of homophilly and perception of attractiveness
This is that at parasocial relationships are likley to form If they view the person as similar to ourselves (homolphiliy If they are considered to be attractivenes
98
What is the Absorption addiction model
This is that to establish a sense of fulfilment individuals may be psychologically absorbed then the motivational forces that drive this may become addictive
99
What are the 3 stages of the absorption-addition model
Entertainment-social-fans will watch and learn about their favourite celebrity for the purpose of entertainment and gossip Intense personal-it reflects intensive and compulsive feelings about the celeb Boderline pathological-this is when they overidentify with the celebrity and have fantasis over them

Psychology (7 decks)

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