Forensic Psychology

Question 1

What is crime

Answer 1

Any act that violates the law and is punished by the state

Question 2

What factors influence our definition of crimes

Answer 2

History
Age
Culture
Mental state

Question 3

Describe how culture influences crime

Answer 3

Criminal behaviour varies from country to country as a result of different laws in those countries

Ie U.K. Alcohol can be purchased from 18 in America 21

Question 4

State 3 ways of measuring crime

Answer 4

Victim surveys

Official statistics

Offender surveys

Question 5

What are official statistics

Answer 5

They are annual statistics on crime and the info is based on info that’s seen or reported to the police e

Question 6

What are victim surveys

Answer 6

This is when a sample of people are asked to state which crimes may have been reported or not have been committed against them over a fixed period time

Question 7

How are victims surveys conducted

Answer 7

A sample is selected from a list of addresses from the Royal Mail and it’s done randomly

Everyone is interviews using a fixed set of questions

Question 8

What are offender surveys

Answer 8

This is when offenders are questioned with the aim to increase knowledge of crime behaviour and young people

Question 9

Give one strength and one weakness of official statistics

Answer 9

Weakness: only a certain number of crimes get report d to the police for reasons like they believe it won’t be taken seriously, 42%

It means official stats only represent a small part of criminal activity due to the dark figure of crime

Strengths general trends in statistics tend to be in agreement meaning areas are used high crime rates can be targeted

Question 10

Describe strengths of victim surveys

Answer 10

It provides potential info on the dark figure of unreported crime depends on honesty

They are more consistent than official statistics when making comparisons over a time period as official cary with changes in law

Question 11

Describe limitations of victim surveys

Answer 11

The sampling is biased as only 75% of those concreted take part ie they have time,also the sample is done from those with a postal address

Victims surveys potentiall underestimate the actual crime,as the number of crimes reported from an indivisible is 5 meaning people could have more incidents that happen against them in a year which won’t get reported

Ie Farrell and pease in domestic abuse suggests that as a result of the cap as man 3 mill in cases haven’t been included in crime figures

Question 12

State limitations of offender surveys

Answer 12

Lack of accuracy in answer we in these surveys people may underplay their involvement in crime social desirability

Question 13

What is meant by offender profiling

Answer 13

It’s a method of working out the characterises of an offender by examining the characterises of the crime and crime

Question 14

What is the top down approach

Answer 14

It’s designed to produce a profile of the most likely offender through analysis of the crime scene

Question 15

State the six main stages of the top down approach

Answer 15

Profiling inputs

Descion process models

Crime assessment

Criminal profile

Crime assessment

Apprehension

Question 16

What happens in profiling inputs first stage

Answer 16

Information is collected about the crime scene ie photographs,sketches

Background info on the victim is collected ie employment

Details of the crime itself such as weapon, autopsy report

Question 17

What happens in decision process models

Answer 17

The data received is put into meaningful patterns

Ie the type of murder

Time factors where it occurred during night or day

Location where was the crime scene located

Question 18

What is crime assessment third stage

Answer 18

The offender based in the evidence from the crime is classified as either organised or disorganised

Question 19

State characteristics of both organised and disorganised criminals

Answer 19

Organised: high IQ
Socially competent
Murder was premeditated,lack of clues at crime scene
Happy harmonious relationship

Disorganised:low IQ
Crime is unplanned with victim selected randomly
Crime contains lots of clues
Likely to live alone

Question 20

What happens in the criminal profile stage

Answer 20

A profile of the offender is constructed and it includes a hypothesis about their habits,likely behaviours

Question 21

What happens in crime assessment stage 5

Answer 21

A written report is given to the police and people matching profile are evaluated

Question 22

What happens in stage 6 apprehension

Answer 22

A suspect is arrears and each stage or the process is evaluated to check if the conclusions made are valid and legitimate

Question 23

Give 4 evaluation points from the top down approach

Answer 23

The method is deemed useful,copson and schereer and Jarvis

Only applies to specific crimes

David canter -flawed classification

Alison based in outdated models of personality

Question 24

Explain how research has shown the effectiveness of the top down approach

(Ao3

Answer 24

Cops on found 82% of 184 us police officers found the method useful and that 90 said they would use it again

Schereer and Jarvis stated that enables police officers to keep an open mind and that as a result it helps in prevent wrongful convoy

Shows how the technique has been applied to real life by the police and that it’s proving to be beneficial for them

Question 25

Explain how it’s a weakness of the top down approach that it’s only useful for specfic crimes

Answer 25

Research has shown that the approach is only useful when crime scene reveal crucial details about the suspect like in rape and murder cases

It’s not useful in common offences like robbery when the crime scene dosent really reveal much about the offender

It’s a limitation as it shows the approach can’t be applied to all crimes so can’t be deemed as useful

Question 26

Explain how the top down approach is based on outdated models of personality and how is it a weakness

Answer 26

The model is criticised for being naive and based on outdated models of personality that believe that offenders motivations and patterns of behaviour are consistent across all contexts rather than not being changed by external factors

Weakness as it shows the approach ie limited in the sense that it’s going to have poor validity and readability when trying to identify suspects and predicting their next moves

Question 27

Describe David canters research and how it’s a weakness of the top down approach

Answer 27

They studied 100 US murders and cross referenced them with 39 characterises associated with disorganised and organised criminals

They found evidence for organised but not disorganised

It’s contrasted the two categories that criminals go into meaning the classification is invalid

Question 28

What is the bottom up approach

Answer 28

It uses statistical techniques in order to produce predictions about likely characterises of an offender

Question 29

State two key aspects of the bottom up approach

Answer 29

Geographical profiling

Investigative psychology

Question 30

State the 3 main parts of investigative psychology

Answer 30

Interpersonal coherence
Forensic awareness
Smallest space analysis

Question 31

What Is meant by interpersonal coherence

Answer 31

It’s that their are links with how the offender behaves with the victim and how they behave in real life

Ie may be aggressive in real life

Question 32

What is meant by forensic awareness

Answer 32

It’s that the criminal may do certain techniques that shows they are aware of police techniques

Ie burning body,getting rid of evidence

Question 33

What is is smallest space analysis and state the themes

Answer 33

3 main themes have been identified about crime scene

Instrumental opportunistic-this is that murder is used to obtain something or accomplish a goal

Instrumental cognitive-the crimes are more planned due to fear of being detected

Expressive impulsive-the offender feels provoked so lashes out in the heat of strong emotions

Question 34

What is geographical profiling

Answer 34

Using patterns shown by the locations of crimes to identify if they may relate to the offenders place of residence

Question 35

What is the circle theory

Answer 35

It states offenders have a spatial mindset and so commit crimes in an imagined circle

Question 36

In accordance to geo profiling state the two types of offenders

Answer 36

A marauder- an offender whose place of residence is within the geographical area in which the crimes are committed

A commuter the offender goes to other geographical locations and commits crimes within a defund space in that area

Question 37

Give 4 evaluation points for the bottom up approach

Answer 37

Use of scientific method

Research support for investigative psychology

Limitations of circle theory

Weakness it geo profiling

Question 38

How is the bottom up approach deemed scientific and how is this a strength

Answer 38

This is due to the fact it uses objective techniques and computer analysis which makes it more scientific then top down

It’s a strength as by using statical techniques and computer analysis it generates more realisable and valid data

Question 39

Describe research support for investigative psychology and how it’s a strength of bottom up approach

Answer 39

Copson surveyed 48 U.K. Police officers using investigative psychology and found 75% or the police offer questioned found the advice given to them was useful and that they would do it again

It’s a strength or the bottom up approach as it shows how it’s being used in a real life setting end that it’s bring about a positive response

Question 40

Describe limitations of the circle theory and how it’s a limitation of the bottom up approach

Answer 40

Although canter and Larkin could distinguish between marauders and commuters they found 91 percent were classified as marauders showing the classification isn’t useful

Petherick found other flaws in the theory for example of the home base of the offender isnt in the centre of the circle then it can mislead the police In looking in the wrong places further more it’s deemed to simplistic to represent ranges as circle

Highlights various flaws in the circle theory and it’s not particularly reliable in the profiling of an offender

Question 41

Describe the limitations of geo profiling and how it’s weakness

Answer 41

It can’t distinguish between multiple offenders in and area,it’s only limited to spatial behaviour and it doesn’t tell us critical things like the characteristics of the offender

Limitations as it highlights how unrealiable the techniques used are and that it’s not feasible for the police to use these methods

Question 42

What is the atavistic form

Answer 42

It’s that certain people are born with a criminal personality and it’s innate and that criminals are genetically different and are maladjusted to society so they turn to crime

Question 43

What are general features of criminals in accordance to the atavistic form

Answer 43

Eye defects

Ears unusual size

Asymmetry of face

Twisted nose

Question 44

What are lombroso studies humans called

Answer 44

Anthropmeteryb

Question 45

What was the procedure and findings of Lombardo study

Answer 45

They studies faces of humans and dead faces

They studied 383 convicted Italian criminals he found 43% had at least 5 atavistic form and 22% had just one trait

Question 46

State 4 somatotypes

And their definitions

Answer 46

Leptosome- tall and thin petty thieves

Athletic-muscular and tall crimes of violence

Pyknic-fat and short,commit crimes of deception

Dysplastic- more than one somatotype crimes against morality

Question 47

Give 4 evaluation points for the atavistic form

Answer 47

Contribution to science of criminology

Gender bias

Cristina of lombroso methonds

Scientific rascim

Question 48

Explain how Lombrasos use of empirical evidence is a strength of the atavistic form

Answer 48

He felt that when investigating crimes an evidence based approach was needed

His ideas were based on detailed measurements and empirical observation

Strength as he is considered to be the founder of modern criminology and his use of science made it more acceptable as a science

Question 49

Explain Criticisms of lombroso methods as an evaluation point

Answer 49

His research had several flaws for example their behaviour was a lack of adequate controls

When he studies prisoners he didn’t pay attention to non prisoners as he did prisoners (if he had he would have found they had similar characteristics)

Charles goring found after comparing 3000 convicts with a group of non convicts he found that no difference expect they were smaller

Limitation as it shows the conclusions reached when defining criminals weren’t valid

Question 50

Explain how lombroso research were gender biased

Answer 50

He stated that women were less evolved than man,naturally jealous,insensitive to pain and had low intelligence,passive and had maternal instinct and that these neutralis e one another and meant they were less likely to be criminals

Weakness as it shows his approach is largely androcentric,meaning he undermined females

Question 51

Explain how scientific rascism was an issue with lombroso study

Answer 51

Matt delisi drew attention to the racial undertones of the atavistic theory

Many of the atavistic features that were identified like dark skin,curly hair,fleshy lips were most likely to be found among those of African descent

It’s a limitation as it shows it’s a very controversial aspect of his legacy and approach and in some communities can lead to stereotyping those of African descent

Question 52

What are the two biological explanations to offending behaviour

Answer 52

Genetic explanations

Neural explanations

Question 53

What do genetic explanations say causes offending behaviour and state the two candidate genes believed to be responsible for offending behaviour

Answer 53

That an individual genetic make up is the cause of their behaviour

MAOA
Cadherin 13

Question 54

Describe the research that shows the role of MAOA in offending behaviour

AO1

Answer 54

HanBrunner conducted research on 28 male members of a Dutch family who had history of impulsive and violence

They analysed the DNA of these men and found they shared a gene that lead to low levels of MAOA

Question 55

Describe research that shows the role of CDH13

Answer 55

Tihonen et al 2015 studied 900 offenders and found evidence of low activity of the MAOA and the CDH13 gene and they found that 5-10% of all violent crimes in Finland were due to abnormalities in one of these genes

Question 56

What is diathesis stress and epigentics and give state the findings of research that supports this

Answer 56

Materials in the body that switch genes off or on this affected by the environment

Capsi et al in New Zealand they followed 1000 people

They assessed anti social behaviour at the age of 26 and found 12% of men with low MAOA genes had experienced maltreatment when they were babies and were responsible for 44% or violent convictions,shows the environment they were in caused the inactive gene to be expressed resulting in their behaviour

Shows their environments caused the inactive gene to be expressed

Question 57

What do neural explanations state is the cause offending behaviour

Answer 57

This explanation states that criminals have differences in neurotransmitter levels and differences in brain structure

Question 58

State the findings of research that shows abnormalities in brain structure

Answer 58

Raine found from brain imaging studies that in murderers and psychopaths there was reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex and that lowered activity is associated with loss of control and impulsiveness

Question 59

What is the limbic system and what has research shown about its relation to offending

Answer 59

It’s subcortical structures like the thalamus and amygdala which are linked with emotion and motivation

Raine compared murderers who were not guilty due to insanity with a control group in murderers they found asymmetries in the limbic system were found especially in the amygdala where reduced activity was found in the left and increased on the right

Question 60

Describe what research has shown about neurotransmitters in relation to offending behaviour

Answer 60

Seo et al found low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin could predispose individuals to impulsive aggression and criminal behaviour

Noradrenaline both very high and low levels of this have been associated with aggression,violence and criminality (wright et al)

Question 61

Give 4 evaluation points for biological explanations of offending behaviour

Answer 61

Research adoptions crowe

Rwa application for neural abnormalities

It’s based on research that’s related to agresssion rather than offending

Reductionist

Question 62

State the procedure and findings of research by Crowe and how it supports biological explanations of offending behaviour

Answer 62

They found adopted children had a 50% greater risk of having s criminal record by age 18 if there biological parent had a criminal behaviour

Whereas adopted children whose mother didn’t have a criminal record only had a 5% risk

Strength as it shows the role of genes in hereditary that an offspring behaviour and chars can be influenced by their parents

Question 63

State how real world application is a strength of biological explanations of offending behaviour

Answer 63

Research on neural abnormalities can lead to possible methods of treatments

Ie if aggressiveness is linked to low levels of serotonin in criminals

Then people can be given diets/drugs that enhance their serotonin levels which may lead to a decrease in their aggression

Strength as it shows application in the real world and how it’s beneficial to people and could potentially help them from reoffending

Question 64

State the problems/limitations with neural explanations

Answer 64

Research in relation to neurotransmitters often relies on studies of non human animals(curran and renzetti)

Furthermore aggressivesiveness is studies not criminality

Also their isn’t 100% correspondence with any area of the brain in determining offending

Weakness as use of non human animals means we can’t extrapolate the findings to humans,offending isn’t actually studied

Question 65

How is the biological explanations to offending behaviour reductionist

Answer 65

It limits offending behaviour to the role of genes and neurotransmitters it fails to take into account other factors that affect offending behaviour like cognition

Question 66

What did Eysenck theory state where the 3 dimensions of personality

Answer 66

Extraversion-introversion

Neuroticism

Psychoticism

Question 67

What is extroversion-introversion

Answer 67

Extroverts tend to be more outgoing and have positive emotions(get bored more easily(talkative,sociable)

Introversion-these people tend to be shy,nervous and aren’t sociable ,pessimistic

Question 68

What is neuroticism

Answer 68

It’s the tendency to have negativity be emotional states like anger,anxiety and depression rather than experiencing positive emotions

Question 69

What is psychoticism

Answer 69

They tend to be egocentric,impulsive and aggressive and aren’t concerned with the welfare of others

Question 70

What is the biological basis for extraversion and introversion

Answer 70

It’s determined by the arousal of a person nervous system

Extroverts- they have under aroused nervous system do they require external stimulation to increase their cortical brain arosual (that’s why they are so outgoing

Introverts-they have an innately overaroused ns and so seek to avoid stimulation

Question 71

State the biological basis for neuroticism

Answer 71

It’s determined by the level of stability in a person sympathetic nervous system

A neurotic person has an unstable sympathetic nervous system which makes them more likely to be upset or anxious

Question 72

What is the biological basis for psychoticism

Answer 72

It’s in relation to higher levels of testosterone

Question 73

State how arousal is linked to criminality for all 3 personalitys

Answer 73

Extroverts seek more arousal so engage in dangerous activity ie robbery

Neurotics as they are unstable are prone to overreact in situations of threat

Psychoticism is linked to criminality as individuals lack empathy and are aggressive

Question 74

Give 4 evaluation points Eysenck theory

Answer 74

Zuckerman 1987 twin studies

Dunlop link between personality and criminal behaviour

Personality tests aren’t reliable

Personality may not be consistent

Question 75

State the findings of zuckermans research and how it’s a strength of Eysenck theory

Answer 75

They found .53 correlation for Mz twins on neuroticism compared with .24 with dz twins showing a large genetic component

For extraversion figures were 0.51 and 0.12

Strength as it shows that the biological basis in Eysenck theory and shows our genetics determine our personality in terms of criminality supports the biological basis

Question 76

State the findings of Dunlop et Al and van dam et al findings and how it supports Eysenck theory

Also state an issue with the research

Answer 76

They found lie scales,extraversion and psychoticism were good predictors of delinquency

Van dam et al found that only a small group of male offenders in a juvie centre had high scores on all 3 of Eysenck variables

Strength as it supports the link between personality and criminal behaviour,but a critisim of the study is that only students were used so may not apply to older offenders

Question 77

Explain the evaluation point”personality may not be consistent as a weakness of Eysenck theory)

Answer 77

It assumes that our personality is consistent across all contexts,it doesn’t take into account situational perspectives and how they influence our behaviour

Mischel and peake support this as they asked family,friends and strangers to rate 63 students in a variety of situations and found no correlation in the traits they displayed

Weakness as it shows the notion of criminal personality is flawed,as we alter our personality in line with the situation we are in

Question 78

How are personality unreliable and explain how it’s an issue with Eysenck theory

Answer 78

The scores given on theories of personality depends on the answers they give in questionnaires

There responses may not represent reality,as they are responding to the demands of the question(they have predetermined answers)

Furthermore questionnaires may not be entirely truthful due to people displaying social desirability

Weakness as it shows personality tests aren’t valid and so the results generated from them aren’t valid either

Question 79

What are cognitive distortions and give two types

Answer 79

It’s a form of irrational thinking, that has a bias meaning what a person revives dosent match reality

Hostile attribution bias
Minimalisation

Question 80

What is hostile attribution bias

Answer 80

When a person automatically judges ambiguous situations negatively which leads to aggressive behaviour

Question 81

What is minimalisation

Answer 81

When a person under exaggerates the consequences of committing a crime to reduce any negative emotions and feelings of guilt

Question 82

What is moral reasoning

Answer 82

When we think consistently and in a logical way about right and wrong in Accordance to socially agreed principles

Question 83

What are the 3 levels of moral reasoning

Answer 83

Pre conventional level
Conventional level
Post- conventional level

Question 84

Give 4 evaluation points for cognitive explanations of offending behaviour

Answer 84

Schoenberg and aiste
Kennedy and grobin
Gender bias
Real world application

Question 85

What were the findings of Schoenberg and Aiste study and how does it support cognitive explanations for offending behaviour

Answer 85

They showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 55 violent offenders in a prisons and compared their responses to matched control participants

They found offenders were more likely to interpret any picture that had done expression of anger as an expression of aggression

Strength as it shows hostile attribution bias and criminals especially in the absence of non verbal cues may misinterpret facial cues as a sign of aggression

Question 86

State what Kennedy and Grubin and how does it supports cognitive explanations for offending behaviour

Answer 86

They found that in sex offenders accounts of their crimes they would tend to play down their behaviour,ie they stated it was the victims fault or that no crime had been committed at all

Strength as it’s supports the role of minimalisation in criminal behaviour and that criminals fail to see the ramifications of their crimes

Question 87

How is kohlbergs study gender biased and how is it a weakness of psychological explanations of offending behaviour

Answer 87

His theory can be construed as gender biased and androcentric as he used male only smelled there his results can’t be applied to women only men

Question 88

How is real world application a strength of psychological explanations for offending behaviour

Answer 88

Kohlberg found that children raised in the Israeli kibbutzim were morally advanced and made better moral judgments

So he applied this knowledge to set up cluster schools,in prison and schools to aid in moral development and hopefully encourage it

Strength as it’s been used In real life and it aids in reducing crime rates if moral thinking is encouraged

Question 89

What is differential association and who proposed the theory

Answer 89

It’s a theory that states that our interactions with others lead to the formation of attitudes about crime

Edwin Sutherland

Question 90

In differentional association was is learned

Answer 90

A child will learn attitudes towards whether desrisble or undesirable

They will learn which types of crimes are acceptable within their community also desirable(worth doing)

And they learn specific methods for committing crimes

Question 91

Who is the behaviour learned from

Answer 91

From intimate personal groups such as family and or peer groups

And from the wider neighbourhood ie if crime is common around these areas

Question 92

How is the behaviour learned in differential association

Answer 92

The degree of influence is determined by frequency,length,personal meaning

Learning occcurs through direct and indirect operant conditioning

Question 93

What is direct and indirect reinforcement in differential association

Answer 93

Direct reinforcement -is from parents in which their deviant behaviour is reinforced either through praise or punishment

Indirect operant conditioning(vicarious reinforcement)

This occurs when role models provide opportunities to model behaviour and if their behaviour is successful it’s copied

Question 94

Give 4 evaluation points for differential association

Answer 94

Osborne and west

Akers

Methodological issues

Reductionist

Question 95

State the findings of Osborne and west and it supports differential association

Answer 95

They found that when the father is a criminal 40% of the sons had by 18 committed a crime compared to only 13% of sons of non criminal fathers strength as it shows they behaviour like criminality can be learnt from family in this case the father also supports conditioning as either indirect or direct can be used to explain why criminality occurs

Question 96

What did Akers find and how does it support differential association

Answer 96

They surveyed 2500 male and female adolescents to investigate drinking and drug behaviour

He found the most important influence was from peers and that differential association and differential reinforcement accounted for 68% variance in drug use and 55% in

alcohol use

Strength as it highlights the influence that peers can have on our behaviour

Question 97

What methodological issues are there in differential association and how is it a weakness

Answer 97

The data involved is correlational so although it shows there is s link it doesn’t tell us exactly that association with bad peers/family causes criminal behaviour

So it doesn’t show causation

Question 98

How is differential association reductionist and how is this a weakness

Answer 98

It misses out on things that may contribute to criminality like biological factors in which research shown that genetics can be used as s way of explaining criminal behaviour as well as diathesis stress doesn’t take into account cognitive factors

Weaknesses as it’s reductionist it doesn’t take into account other factors that cause offending behaviour so as a result it gives us a limited perspective on criminal behaviour

Question 99

What is affection less psychopathy (psychodynamic explanation)

Answer 99

A behaviour disorder in which an individual has the inability to feel guilt or shame over their actions which allows them to commit crime

Question 100

What is maternal deprivation

Answer 100

The loss of emotional care that is provided by the primary care giver that leads to affection less psychopathy

Question 101

What is superego

Answer 101

It’s our morality principle,it embodies our conscience telling us what is right and what is wrong

Question 102

What is psychodynamic

Answer 102

Any theory that emphasis change in an individual

Question 103

Describe the findings and procedure of bowlbys study and it shows the impact of maternal deprivation in causing criminal behaviour

Answer 103

Bowlby did a study on 44 thieves who had been caught stealing and signs of affection less psychopathy

He compared 44 thieves with 44 control participants

He found that 39% of thieves had expended early separations while no one in the control group had

He found that those thrived with affectionless character had almost all experienced frequent separations 86%

Question 104

How is the superego related to offending behaviour

Answer 104

It’s concerned with which behaviours are acceptable or not

Question 105

What are the 3 types of super ego in offending behaviour

Answer 105

Weak/underdeveloped
Deviant
Harsh

Question 106

What causes a weak superego

Answer 106

A weak super ego develops when a child doesn’t identify with their same sex parent or if they are absent

It results in a child having little control over their antisocial behaviour and do they act In ways to gratify their ID

Question 107

What causes a harsh superego

Answer 107

This is when a child develops a strong identification with a strict parent

They have excessive feelings of guilt and anxiety when they act on impulses of ID

This means an indivisible would commit a crime and wish to be caught then feelings of guilt will be reduced via punishment

Question 108

What is deviant superego

Answer 108

This is when kids have criminal parents they would identify with them and adopt their deviant attitudes (could use Osborne or west)

Question 109

Give 4 evaluation points for the psychodynamic approach in explaining offending behaviour

Answer 109

Considers emotions m

Gender biased

Not causal findings

Complex factors(disregards other factors

Question 110

How does the fact that the approach considers emotional factors a strength

Answer 110

It addresses the role emotion plays as well as how anxiety and feelings of rejection may be a contributing factor in offending behaviour,it also recognised the importance of how childhood experiences contribute in moulding adult personality

Strength as it considers how an individuals emotional state can lead to offending behaviour can lead to intervention programmes

Question 111

How are methodological issues a problem with the psychodynamic explanations

Answer 111

As although their findings as a correlation between prolonged separation and emotional problems it doesn’t show that one caused the other

Emotional problems can be e by other variables like discord between mother and child

Weakness as it shows no causal fondue and that it represents an issue with correlation it only shows association

Question 112

Explain how the psychodynamic theory is gender biased

Answer 112

Frued views on women’s were ignorant and less developed than his opinions men ie in the phallic stage he suggests women develops a weaker superego than men as they don’t strongly identify with their same sex parent,because he felt women were of a lower status then man so there wouldn’t be a reason to identify with them

Weakness as it shows alpha bias in which he has exaggerated the difference between men and women and devalued them in the process furthermore it is androcentric

Question 113

How is the psychodynamic theory reductionist

Answer 113

It fails to take into account other factors that lead to delinquency ie poverty,bad housing

David farrning found the most important risk factor in offending behaviour in later life were poverty,low school attainment,family history of criminality

Shows the psychodynamic approach only limits offending behaviour to emotion and fails to take into account situational factors

Question 114

What is recidivism

Answer 114

This is that after receiving a form of punishment a person goes into reoffend

Question 115

What is custodial seneticing

Answer 115

When an offender is required by the courts to be held in prison or closed community

Question 116

What are the aims of custodial sentencing and give an explanation for each one

Answer 116

To deter others-(SLT) long prison sentence are key as they discourage other people in the population from committing crimes

To protect the public(incapacitation)-

To punish an offender and prevent recidivism-punishment is done as it decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated although it doesn’t always work

To atone for wrongdoing(retribution)- the family/friends of the victim feel a sense of justice being don’t

To rehabilitate others-this is that in prison they revive therapy to help treat any Underlying disorder

Question 117

What are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Answer 117

Deindividuatoin
Effects on family- children with a parent in prison are psychologically and financially affected parents may feel guilt also

Depression self harm and suicide-prisoners feel a sense of hopelessness about their future and current situation

Overcrowding and lack of privacy-research is showing that the increasing prison population is not matched by Increase in prisons and it leads to increased physical illness and stress

Question 118

What is deindividuation

Answer 118

This is when an individual begins to lose their identity and its associated with increased aggression and treating people inhumanly

Question 119

State 3 weaknesses of custodial sentencing (evaluation points) and give another evaluation point

Answer 119

Prisons training ground for crime

Punishment isn’t seen as effective

The benefits of non-custodial sentencing

Individual differences in recidivism

Question 120

Explain how punishment isn’t seen as effective in custodial sentencing (evaluation point)

Answer 120

Research has shown punishment doesn’t work due to high levels of recidivism

Behavioursists state the reason it doesn’t work is because it doesn’t occur immediately and offenders see the sentence as punishment for being caught and not for offending so what they learn is to avoid for being caught rather than feeling remorse

Limitation as it shows punishments isn’t effective in custodial sentencing and that prisoners don’t grasp the severity of their actions which enables them to reoffend

Question 121

Explain the evaluation point that prison are a training ground for crime and how it’s a weakness custodial Sentencing

Answer 121

Research has shown that prisons increase the likelihood of reoffending this is due to in prisons they would have association with people who have pro criminal attitudes so they learn new ways to be more successful at committing crimes

This is supported by latessa and lowenkamp who found that placing low risk offenders in terms of recidivism with high risk offenders makes the low risk ones more likely to reoffending shows that rather than preventing crime prisons are enhancing it

Question 122

Explain what research has shown about individual differences in recidivism (evaluation point for recidivism)

Answer 122

Research has shown that rates of recidivism vary with age and crime with younger people more likely to offend and those who commit crimes like theft and bulgary are twice as likley to reoffend in comparison with those who commit drug and sex offences

It can be applied in real life in the sense that sentencing can vary for crimes

Question 123

What has research shown about non custodial sentencing and how is it a better alternative to custodial sentencing Ao3 for custodial sentencing and state what klein et al showed

Answer 123

Research has shown that alternatives to custodial sentencing like probation fines and asbos and community service are better alternatives

Klein et al shows that cautions are better deterrents than arrests

Also offenders that are sentenced to community rehab are less likely to reoffend

Furthermore the problems in prison ie suicide can be avoided by non custodial sentencing

Shows non custodial sentences are more effective

Question 124

What is token economy

Answer 124

A form of therapy where desirable behaviours are encouraged by the use of reinforcement using tokens as secondary reinforcers

Question 125

How does token economy work

Answer 125

Tokens are given when a prisoners conducts good deeds/desirable and they are exchanged for privileges

Ie when they are polite to guards they gain a token and they can exchange it for previlages

Question 126

What is behavioural modification

Answer 126

Technique using operant conditioning used to decrease the frequencies of behaviours occurinh

Question 127

What are the two key aspects of token economy

Answer 127

Target behaviours must be clearly specified in a hierarchy where some behaviours get more tokens than others

Reward must be clearly defined

Question 128

State a study that supports token economy and describe the procedure and state how the findings supports token economy

Answer 128

Hobbs and Holt

They observed 125 delinquent males were and compared to a control group where boys didn’t receive tokens

They told boys each day how many tokens they earned and then they were taken to a store once a week where they could buy things

They found baseline mean percentages for social behaviours increased it before it was 66,47,73 after the tokens the average increased by an of 27% for each cottage

Shows the positive impacts of the token

Question 129

Give 4 evaluation points for token economy

Answer 129

Ethical issues

Advantages over other methods

Long term it’s not good

Individual differences

Question 130

How does token economy have advantages over other methods A03

Answer 130

It’s clearly defined and so as a result it’s easy to implement.It doesn’t require the need of trained psychologists for implementation it aids in controlling unruly behaviour via use of reinforcement

It’s easy implementation means it more likely to be used by prison staff

Question 131

Why is token economy not useful long term Ao3

Answer 131

It’s not useful in the long term because in the real world once rewards cease the stimulus response link is lost,furthermore desirable behaviours in prisons may not apply in the real world ie walking in straight,also prisoners just conform to gain rewards but on the outside they will just display their deviant behaviour

Weaknesses shows it’s not benefitcal

Question 132

How does token economy raise ethical issues AO3

Answer 132

It’s a violation of human rights as individuals behaviour is manipulated without their consent l,also their basic needs like food,visits are conditioned which is potentially unfair as not all prisoners will be able to control their behaviour meaning they wouldn’t be able to obtain tokens

Weakness as it’s unethical In practice

Question 133

State what research has shown about individual differences in token economy AO3

Answer 133

Research show it varies on people

For example with juvenile delinquents cohen and filipcjack found after a year of being trained with token economy that these offenders were less likely to reoffend

However rice et al studied 92 men in a psychatric hospital and found that 50% of men treated with Token economy reoffends

Shows that It’s not beneficial for all type of offenders so be reoffended

Question 134

What is anger management

Answer 134

It’s a type of CBT in which a patient is taught how to mange their anger it includes 3 techniques cognitive reconstruction,behavioural therapy and skill accqustion

Question 135

What are the key aims of anger management

Answer 135

Cognitive restructuring-it involves greater self awareness and control over their anger

Regulation of arousal- this when they learn to control their physiological state

Behavioural strategies-this includes problem solving skills as well as strategic withdraw(ways of diffusing anger

Question 136

What are the 3 steps of the stress inoculation

Answer 136

Cognitive preparation-where they learn about anger initially and they analyse their anger patterns and they identify which situations bring about anger in them

Skill acquisition-this stage they are taught skills that aid in managing their anger

Application training-they intially apply their skills in a controlled environment that’s not threatening like role plays or situations that annoy them

Question 137

Give 4 evaluation points for anger management

Answer 137

Taylor and novaco

Methodological issues

Limitations of anger mangement programmes

Timothy Trimble et al

Question 138

What did Taylor and novaco find out along with lipsey and how is this a strength of anger management

Answer 138

From results of a meta analysis they found a 75% improvement when using anger management therapy

Furthermore landenberger and Lipsey found from 58 studies in which 20 used anger control as therapy they found it was significantly related to improvement

Strength as it shows anger management is successful in practice and has resulted in improvement among patients

Question 139

What methodological issues are associated with anger management and how is this a weakness of therapy

Answer 139

Self report and observations is used to asses anger management which are both subjected to bias ie staff may not like some offenders getting them to do anger management out of spite

Furthermore issue with the hello goodbye affect where patients after treatment may portray themselfves in a more positive light as they want to show how helpful and useful the therapy was

Limitation as it creates a problem with bias in which validity of results are hampered

Question 140

What limitations are there to do with anger management Ao3

Answer 140

The use of CBt and anger management isn’t suitable for everyone

Some offenders may drop out as it’s voluntary some may not take it seriously

Some offenders may find it differcult to make an effort in changing their attitudes/behaviour furthermore they may find the treatment to be to time consuming

Weakness as it shows the procedure in anger management is tedious and has several flaws which reduce the likelihood of it being completed

Question 141

What was Timothy and Trimble study and how does it support anger management

Answer 141

They reported in an anger management programme with 105 offenders on probation in Northern Ireland it involved offenders whose anger predisposed them to offending

They found the programme had reduced significant expressions of anger as well as the amount of anger that offenders experienced in comparison to pretreatment scores

Strength highlights how effective anger management is

Question 142

What if restorative justice

Answer 142

This is a method of atoning for offending behaviour via reconciliation between victim and offender and the wider community

Question 143

State methods of interaction in restorative justice

Answer 143

Face to face meeting,video camera

Question 144

What are the aims of restorative justice

Answer 144

Rehab for offenders
Victims perspective
Atonement for wrongdoing

Question 145

Describe the aim rehab for offenders in RJ

Answer 145

It’s that offenders learn to take the perspective of others which reduces chances of reoffending

They are also encouraged to take responsibility for their actions

Question 146

Explain the aim atonement for wrongdoing

Answer 146

The offender may have to do unpaid community service

They express guilt and empathy

Question 147

What is the aim of Victims perspective

Answer 147

That the victim can reduce their sense of victimisation as they have a voice

They gain an understanding of why the offender did what they did

Question 148

What happens In peace circles

Answer 148

A talking piece is passed around and the person with it can speak uninterrupted

Question 149

Give 4 evaluation points for restorative justice

Answer 149

Can’t be used in all scenarios

Success from victims perspectives

Success in reducing offending behaviour

Ethical issues

Question 150

Describe why RJ can’t be applied to all scenarios

Answer 150

The system can’t apply to all offenders and victims this is because some crimes may not be suitable for this process ie murder

The though of seeing offender maybe to traumatic for the victim meaning they don’t take part indicates that it’s limited in use

Question 151

What has research shown about the success of RJ and how is this a strength

Answer 151

U.K. Restorative justice council report 85% satisfaction from victims face to face meetings with their offenders and the reports of satisfaction covered a large range of crime Avon and Somerset reported 92.5 victim satisfaction with RJ when the victim had been subjected to violent fume

Question 152

What has research shown about the effectiveness of RJ in reducing reoffending A03

Answer 152

Sherman and strang in a review of 20 studies of face to face meeting between offender and victim in the U.K. And Australia then found a showed reduced reoffending,furthermore U.K. RJC found an overall 14% reduction in recidivism rates

Strength highlights how effective it is

Question 153

How does RJ create ethical issues and why is this weakness AO3

Answer 153

It creates ethical issues for victims perspective as they may feel worse from metrung the offender face to face as the offender may not have suitable reason as to why they committed their crime

From offenders perspective it can lead to abuse of power if they face their victim as they may shame the offender for their crime

Limitation has it highlight the delicate nature of RJ