Forensic Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is crime
A
Any act that violates the law and is punished by the state
2
Q
What factors influence our definition of crimes
A
History
Age
Culture
Mental state
3
Q
Describe how culture influences crime
A
Criminal behaviour varies from country to country as a result of different laws in those countries
Ie U.K. Alcohol can be purchased from 18 in America 21
4
Q
State 3 ways of measuring crime
A
Victim surveys
Official statistics
Offender surveys
5
Q
What are official statistics
A
They are annual statistics on crime and the info is based on info that’s seen or reported to the police e
6
Q
What are victim surveys
A
This is when a sample of people are asked to state which crimes may have been reported or not have been committed against them over a fixed period time
7
Q
How are victims surveys conducted
A
A sample is selected from a list of addresses from the Royal Mail and it’s done randomly
Everyone is interviews using a fixed set of questions
8
Q
What are offender surveys
A
This is when offenders are questioned with the aim to increase knowledge of crime behaviour and young people
9
Q
Give one strength and one weakness of official statistics
A
Weakness: only a certain number of crimes get report d to the police for reasons like they believe it won’t be taken seriously, 42%
It means official stats only represent a small part of criminal activity due to the dark figure of crime
Strengths general trends in statistics tend to be in agreement meaning areas are used high crime rates can be targeted
10
Q
Describe strengths of victim surveys
A
It provides potential info on the dark figure of unreported crime depends on honesty
They are more consistent than official statistics when making comparisons over a time period as official cary with changes in law
11
Q
Describe limitations of victim surveys
A
The sampling is biased as only 75% of those concreted take part ie they have time,also the sample is done from those with a postal address
Victims surveys potentiall underestimate the actual crime,as the number of crimes reported from an indivisible is 5 meaning people could have more incidents that happen against them in a year which won’t get reported
Ie Farrell and pease in domestic abuse suggests that as a result of the cap as man 3 mill in cases haven’t been included in crime figures
12
Q
State limitations of offender surveys
A
Lack of accuracy in answer we in these surveys people may underplay their involvement in crime social desirability
13
Q
What is meant by offender profiling
A
It’s a method of working out the characterises of an offender by examining the characterises of the crime and crime
14
Q
What is the top down approach
A
It’s designed to produce a profile of the most likely offender through analysis of the crime scene
15
Q
State the six main stages of the top down approach
A
Profiling inputs
Descion process models
Crime assessment
Criminal profile
Crime assessment
Apprehension
16
Q
What happens in profiling inputs first stage
A
Information is collected about the crime scene ie photographs,sketches
Background info on the victim is collected ie employment
Details of the crime itself such as weapon, autopsy report
17
Q
What happens in decision process models
A
The data received is put into meaningful patterns
Ie the type of murder
Time factors where it occurred during night or day
Location where was the crime scene located
18
Q
What is crime assessment third stage
A
The offender based in the evidence from the crime is classified as either organised or disorganised
19
Q
State characteristics of both organised and disorganised criminals
A
Organised: high IQ
Socially competent
Murder was premeditated,lack of clues at crime scene
Happy harmonious relationship
Disorganised:low IQ
Crime is unplanned with victim selected randomly
Crime contains lots of clues
Likely to live alone
20
Q
What happens in the criminal profile stage
A
A profile of the offender is constructed and it includes a hypothesis about their habits,likely behaviours
21
Q
What happens in crime assessment stage 5
A
A written report is given to the police and people matching profile are evaluated
22
Q
What happens in stage 6 apprehension
A
A suspect is arrears and each stage or the process is evaluated to check if the conclusions made are valid and legitimate
23
Q
Give 4 evaluation points from the top down approach
A
The method is deemed useful,copson and schereer and Jarvis
Only applies to specific crimes
David canter -flawed classification
Alison based in outdated models of personality
24
Q
Explain how research has shown the effectiveness of the top down approach
(Ao3
A
Cops on found 82% of 184 us police officers found the method useful and that 90 said they would use it again
Schereer and Jarvis stated that enables police officers to keep an open mind and that as a result it helps in prevent wrongful convoy
Shows how the technique has been applied to real life by the police and that it’s proving to be beneficial for them
25
Explain how it's a weakness of the top down approach that it's only useful for specfic crimes
Research has shown that the approach is only useful when crime scene reveal crucial details about the suspect like in rape and murder cases
It's not useful in common offences like robbery when the crime scene dosent really reveal much about the offender
It's a limitation as it shows the approach can't be applied to all crimes so can't be deemed as useful
26
Explain how the top down approach is based on outdated models of personality and how is it a weakness
The model is criticised for being naive and based on outdated models of personality that believe that offenders motivations and patterns of behaviour are consistent across all contexts rather than not being changed by external factors
Weakness as it shows the approach ie limited in the sense that it's going to have poor validity and readability when trying to identify suspects and predicting their next moves
27
Describe David canters research and how it's a weakness of the top down approach
They studied 100 US murders and cross referenced them with 39 characterises associated with disorganised and organised criminals
They found evidence for organised but not disorganised
It's contrasted the two categories that criminals go into meaning the classification is invalid
28
What is the bottom up approach
It uses statistical techniques in order to produce predictions about likely characterises of an offender
29
State two key aspects of the bottom up approach
Geographical profiling
Investigative psychology
30
State the 3 main parts of investigative psychology
Interpersonal coherence
Forensic awareness
Smallest space analysis
31
What Is meant by interpersonal coherence
It's that their are links with how the offender behaves with the victim and how they behave in real life
Ie may be aggressive in real life
32
What is meant by forensic awareness
It's that the criminal may do certain techniques that shows they are aware of police techniques
Ie burning body,getting rid of evidence
33
What is is smallest space analysis and state the themes
3 main themes have been identified about crime scene
Instrumental opportunistic-this is that murder is used to obtain something or accomplish a goal
Instrumental cognitive-the crimes are more planned due to fear of being detected
Expressive impulsive-the offender feels provoked so lashes out in the heat of strong emotions
34
What is geographical profiling
Using patterns shown by the locations of crimes to identify if they may relate to the offenders place of residence
35
What is the circle theory
It states offenders have a spatial mindset and so commit crimes in an imagined circle
36
In accordance to geo profiling state the two types of offenders
A marauder- an offender whose place of residence is within the geographical area in which the crimes are committed
A commuter the offender goes to other geographical locations and commits crimes within a defund space in that area
37
Give 4 evaluation points for the bottom up approach
Use of scientific method
Research support for investigative psychology
Limitations of circle theory
Weakness it geo profiling
38
How is the bottom up approach deemed scientific and how is this a strength
This is due to the fact it uses objective techniques and computer analysis which makes it more scientific then top down
It's a strength as by using statical techniques and computer analysis it generates more realisable and valid data
39
Describe research support for investigative psychology and how it's a strength of bottom up approach
Copson surveyed 48 U.K. Police officers using investigative psychology and found 75% or the police offer questioned found the advice given to them was useful and that they would do it again
It's a strength or the bottom up approach as it shows how it's being used in a real life setting end that it's bring about a positive response
40
Describe limitations of the circle theory and how it's a limitation of the bottom up approach
Although canter and Larkin could distinguish between marauders and commuters they found 91 percent were classified as marauders showing the classification isn't useful
Petherick found other flaws in the theory for example of the home base of the offender isnt in the centre of the circle then it can mislead the police In looking in the wrong places further more it's deemed to simplistic to represent ranges as circle
Highlights various flaws in the circle theory and it's not particularly reliable in the profiling of an offender
41
Describe the limitations of geo profiling and how it's weakness
It can't distinguish between multiple offenders in and area,it's only limited to spatial behaviour and it doesn't tell us critical things like the characteristics of the offender
Limitations as it highlights how unrealiable the techniques used are and that it's not feasible for the police to use these methods
42
What is the atavistic form
It's that certain people are born with a criminal personality and it's innate and that criminals are genetically different and are maladjusted to society so they turn to crime
43
What are general features of criminals in accordance to the atavistic form
Eye defects
Ears unusual size
Asymmetry of face
Twisted nose
44
What are lombroso studies humans called
Anthropmeteryb
45
What was the procedure and findings of Lombardo study
They studies faces of humans and dead faces
They studied 383 convicted Italian criminals he found 43% had at least 5 atavistic form and 22% had just one trait
46
State 4 somatotypes
| And their definitions
Leptosome- tall and thin petty thieves
Athletic-muscular and tall crimes of violence
Pyknic-fat and short,commit crimes of deception
Dysplastic- more than one somatotype crimes against morality
47
Give 4 evaluation points for the atavistic form
Contribution to science of criminology
Gender bias
Cristina of lombroso methonds
Scientific rascim
48
Explain how Lombrasos use of empirical evidence is a strength of the atavistic form
He felt that when investigating crimes an evidence based approach was needed
His ideas were based on detailed measurements and empirical observation
Strength as he is considered to be the founder of modern criminology and his use of science made it more acceptable as a science
49
Explain Criticisms of lombroso methods as an evaluation point
His research had several flaws for example their behaviour was a lack of adequate controls
When he studies prisoners he didn't pay attention to non prisoners as he did prisoners (if he had he would have found they had similar characteristics)
Charles goring found after comparing 3000 convicts with a group of non convicts he found that no difference expect they were smaller
Limitation as it shows the conclusions reached when defining criminals weren't valid
50
Explain how lombroso research were gender biased
He stated that women were less evolved than man,naturally jealous,insensitive to pain and had low intelligence,passive and had maternal instinct and that these neutralis e one another and meant they were less likely to be criminals
Weakness as it shows his approach is largely androcentric,meaning he undermined females
51
Explain how scientific rascism was an issue with lombroso study
Matt delisi drew attention to the racial undertones of the atavistic theory
Many of the atavistic features that were identified like dark skin,curly hair,fleshy lips were most likely to be found among those of African descent
It's a limitation as it shows it's a very controversial aspect of his legacy and approach and in some communities can lead to stereotyping those of African descent
52
What are the two biological explanations to offending behaviour
Genetic explanations
| Neural explanations
53
What do genetic explanations say causes offending behaviour and state the two candidate genes believed to be responsible for offending behaviour
That an individual genetic make up is the cause of their behaviour
MAOA
Cadherin 13
54
Describe the research that shows the role of MAOA in offending behaviour
AO1
HanBrunner conducted research on 28 male members of a Dutch family who had history of impulsive and violence
They analysed the DNA of these men and found they shared a gene that lead to low levels of MAOA
55
Describe research that shows the role of CDH13
Tihonen et al 2015 studied 900 offenders and found evidence of low activity of the MAOA and the CDH13 gene and they found that 5-10% of all violent crimes in Finland were due to abnormalities in one of these genes
56
What is diathesis stress and epigentics and give state the findings of research that supports this
Materials in the body that switch genes off or on this affected by the environment
Capsi et al in New Zealand they followed 1000 people
They assessed anti social behaviour at the age of 26 and found 12% of men with low MAOA genes had experienced maltreatment when they were babies and were responsible for 44% or violent convictions,shows the environment they were in caused the inactive gene to be expressed resulting in their behaviour
Shows their environments caused the inactive gene to be expressed
57
What do neural explanations state is the cause offending behaviour
This explanation states that criminals have differences in neurotransmitter levels and differences in brain structure
58
State the findings of research that shows abnormalities in brain structure
Raine found from brain imaging studies that in murderers and psychopaths there was reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex and that lowered activity is associated with loss of control and impulsiveness
59
What is the limbic system and what has research shown about its relation to offending
It's subcortical structures like the thalamus and amygdala which are linked with emotion and motivation
Raine compared murderers who were not guilty due to insanity with a control group in murderers they found asymmetries in the limbic system were found especially in the amygdala where reduced activity was found in the left and increased on the right
60
Describe what research has shown about neurotransmitters in relation to offending behaviour
Seo et al found low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin could predispose individuals to impulsive aggression and criminal behaviour
Noradrenaline both very high and low levels of this have been associated with aggression,violence and criminality (wright et al)
61
Give 4 evaluation points for biological explanations of offending behaviour
Research adoptions crowe
Rwa application for neural abnormalities
It's based on research that's related to agresssion rather than offending
Reductionist
62
State the procedure and findings of research by Crowe and how it supports biological explanations of offending behaviour
They found adopted children had a 50% greater risk of having s criminal record by age 18 if there biological parent had a criminal behaviour
Whereas adopted children whose mother didn't have a criminal record only had a 5% risk
Strength as it shows the role of genes in hereditary that an offspring behaviour and chars can be influenced by their parents
63
State how real world application is a strength of biological explanations of offending behaviour
Research on neural abnormalities can lead to possible methods of treatments
Ie if aggressiveness is linked to low levels of serotonin in criminals
Then people can be given diets/drugs that enhance their serotonin levels which may lead to a decrease in their aggression
Strength as it shows application in the real world and how it's beneficial to people and could potentially help them from reoffending
64
State the problems/limitations with neural explanations
Research in relation to neurotransmitters often relies on studies of non human animals(curran and renzetti)
Furthermore aggressivesiveness is studies not criminality
Also their isn't 100% correspondence with any area of the brain in determining offending
Weakness as use of non human animals means we can't extrapolate the findings to humans,offending isn't actually studied
65
How is the biological explanations to offending behaviour reductionist
It limits offending behaviour to the role of genes and neurotransmitters it fails to take into account other factors that affect offending behaviour like cognition
66
What did Eysenck theory state where the 3 dimensions of personality
Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism
Psychoticism
67
What is extroversion-introversion
Extroverts tend to be more outgoing and have positive emotions(get bored more easily(talkative,sociable)
Introversion-these people tend to be shy,nervous and aren't sociable ,pessimistic
68
What is neuroticism
It's the tendency to have negativity be emotional states like anger,anxiety and depression rather than experiencing positive emotions
69
What is psychoticism
They tend to be egocentric,impulsive and aggressive and aren't concerned with the welfare of others
70
What is the biological basis for extraversion and introversion
It's determined by the arousal of a person nervous system
Extroverts- they have under aroused nervous system do they require external stimulation to increase their cortical brain arosual (that's why they are so outgoing
Introverts-they have an innately overaroused ns and so seek to avoid stimulation
71
State the biological basis for neuroticism
It's determined by the level of stability in a person sympathetic nervous system
A neurotic person has an unstable sympathetic nervous system which makes them more likely to be upset or anxious
72
What is the biological basis for psychoticism
It's in relation to higher levels of testosterone
73
State how arousal is linked to criminality for all 3 personalitys
Extroverts seek more arousal so engage in dangerous activity ie robbery
Neurotics as they are unstable are prone to overreact in situations of threat
Psychoticism is linked to criminality as individuals lack empathy and are aggressive
74
Give 4 evaluation points Eysenck theory
Zuckerman 1987 twin studies
Dunlop link between personality and criminal behaviour
Personality tests aren't reliable
Personality may not be consistent
75
State the findings of zuckermans research and how it's a strength of Eysenck theory
They found .53 correlation for Mz twins on neuroticism compared with .24 with dz twins showing a large genetic component
For extraversion figures were 0.51 and 0.12
Strength as it shows that the biological basis in Eysenck theory and shows our genetics determine our personality in terms of criminality supports the biological basis
76
State the findings of Dunlop et Al and van dam et al findings and how it supports Eysenck theory
Also state an issue with the research
They found lie scales,extraversion and psychoticism were good predictors of delinquency
Van dam et al found that only a small group of male offenders in a juvie centre had high scores on all 3 of Eysenck variables
Strength as it supports the link between personality and criminal behaviour,but a critisim of the study is that only students were used so may not apply to older offenders
77
Explain the evaluation point"personality may not be consistent as a weakness of Eysenck theory)
It assumes that our personality is consistent across all contexts,it doesn't take into account situational perspectives and how they influence our behaviour
Mischel and peake support this as they asked family,friends and strangers to rate 63 students in a variety of situations and found no correlation in the traits they displayed
Weakness as it shows the notion of criminal personality is flawed,as we alter our personality in line with the situation we are in
78
How are personality unreliable and explain how it's an issue with Eysenck theory
The scores given on theories of personality depends on the answers they give in questionnaires
There responses may not represent reality,as they are responding to the demands of the question(they have predetermined answers)
Furthermore questionnaires may not be entirely truthful due to people displaying social desirability
Weakness as it shows personality tests aren't valid and so the results generated from them aren't valid either
79
What are cognitive distortions and give two types
It's a form of irrational thinking, that has a bias meaning what a person revives dosent match reality
Hostile attribution bias
Minimalisation
80
What is hostile attribution bias
When a person automatically judges ambiguous situations negatively which leads to aggressive behaviour
81
What is minimalisation
When a person under exaggerates the consequences of committing a crime to reduce any negative emotions and feelings of guilt
82
What is moral reasoning
When we think consistently and in a logical way about right and wrong in Accordance to socially agreed principles
83
What are the 3 levels of moral reasoning
Pre conventional level
Conventional level
Post- conventional level
84
Give 4 evaluation points for cognitive explanations of offending behaviour
Schoenberg and aiste
Kennedy and grobin
Gender bias
Real world application
85
What were the findings of Schoenberg and Aiste study and how does it support cognitive explanations for offending behaviour
They showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 55 violent offenders in a prisons and compared their responses to matched control participants
They found offenders were more likely to interpret any picture that had done expression of anger as an expression of aggression
Strength as it shows hostile attribution bias and criminals especially in the absence of non verbal cues may misinterpret facial cues as a sign of aggression
86
State what Kennedy and Grubin and how does it supports cognitive explanations for offending behaviour
They found that in sex offenders accounts of their crimes they would tend to play down their behaviour,ie they stated it was the victims fault or that no crime had been committed at all
Strength as it's supports the role of minimalisation in criminal behaviour and that criminals fail to see the ramifications of their crimes
87
How is kohlbergs study gender biased and how is it a weakness of psychological explanations of offending behaviour
His theory can be construed as gender biased and androcentric as he used male only smelled there his results can't be applied to women only men
88
How is real world application a strength of psychological explanations for offending behaviour
Kohlberg found that children raised in the Israeli kibbutzim were morally advanced and made better moral judgments
So he applied this knowledge to set up cluster schools,in prison and schools to aid in moral development and hopefully encourage it
Strength as it's been used In real life and it aids in reducing crime rates if moral thinking is encouraged
89
What is differential association and who proposed the theory
It's a theory that states that our interactions with others lead to the formation of attitudes about crime
Edwin Sutherland
90
In differentional association was is learned
A child will learn attitudes towards whether desrisble or undesirable
They will learn which types of crimes are acceptable within their community also desirable(worth doing)
And they learn specific methods for committing crimes
91
Who is the behaviour learned from
From intimate personal groups such as family and or peer groups
And from the wider neighbourhood ie if crime is common around these areas
92
How is the behaviour learned in differential association
The degree of influence is determined by frequency,length,personal meaning
Learning occcurs through direct and indirect operant conditioning
93
What is direct and indirect reinforcement in differential association
Direct reinforcement -is from parents in which their deviant behaviour is reinforced either through praise or punishment
Indirect operant conditioning(vicarious reinforcement)
This occurs when role models provide opportunities to model behaviour and if their behaviour is successful it's copied
94
Give 4 evaluation points for differential association
Osborne and west
Akers
Methodological issues
Reductionist
95
State the findings of Osborne and west and it supports differential association
They found that when the father is a criminal 40% of the sons had by 18 committed a crime compared to only 13% of sons of non criminal fathers strength as it shows they behaviour like criminality can be learnt from family in this case the father also supports conditioning as either indirect or direct can be used to explain why criminality occurs
96
What did Akers find and how does it support differential association
They surveyed 2500 male and female adolescents to investigate drinking and drug behaviour
He found the most important influence was from peers and that differential association and differential reinforcement accounted for 68% variance in drug use and 55% in
alcohol use
Strength as it highlights the influence that peers can have on our behaviour
97
What methodological issues are there in differential association and how is it a weakness
The data involved is correlational so although it shows there is s link it doesn't tell us exactly that association with bad peers/family causes criminal behaviour
So it doesn't show causation
98
How is differential association reductionist and how is this a weakness
It misses out on things that may contribute to criminality like biological factors in which research shown that genetics can be used as s way of explaining criminal behaviour as well as diathesis stress doesn't take into account cognitive factors
Weaknesses as it's reductionist it doesn't take into account other factors that cause offending behaviour so as a result it gives us a limited perspective on criminal behaviour
99
What is affection less psychopathy (psychodynamic explanation)
A behaviour disorder in which an individual has the inability to feel guilt or shame over their actions which allows them to commit crime
100
What is maternal deprivation
The loss of emotional care that is provided by the primary care giver that leads to affection less psychopathy
101
What is superego
It's our morality principle,it embodies our conscience telling us what is right and what is wrong
102
What is psychodynamic
Any theory that emphasis change in an individual
103
Describe the findings and procedure of bowlbys study and it shows the impact of maternal deprivation in causing criminal behaviour
Bowlby did a study on 44 thieves who had been caught stealing and signs of affection less psychopathy
He compared 44 thieves with 44 control participants
He found that 39% of thieves had expended early separations while no one in the control group had
He found that those thrived with affectionless character had almost all experienced frequent separations 86%
104
How is the superego related to offending behaviour
It's concerned with which behaviours are acceptable or not
105
What are the 3 types of super ego in offending behaviour
Weak/underdeveloped
Deviant
Harsh
106
What causes a weak superego
A weak super ego develops when a child doesn't identify with their same sex parent or if they are absent
It results in a child having little control over their antisocial behaviour and do they act In ways to gratify their ID
107
What causes a harsh superego
This is when a child develops a strong identification with a strict parent
They have excessive feelings of guilt and anxiety when they act on impulses of ID
This means an indivisible would commit a crime and wish to be caught then feelings of guilt will be reduced via punishment
108
What is deviant superego
This is when kids have criminal parents they would identify with them and adopt their deviant attitudes (could use Osborne or west)
109
Give 4 evaluation points for the psychodynamic approach in explaining offending behaviour
Considers emotions m
Gender biased
Not causal findings
Complex factors(disregards other factors
110
How does the fact that the approach considers emotional factors a strength
It addresses the role emotion plays as well as how anxiety and feelings of rejection may be a contributing factor in offending behaviour,it also recognised the importance of how childhood experiences contribute in moulding adult personality
Strength as it considers how an individuals emotional state can lead to offending behaviour can lead to intervention programmes
111
How are methodological issues a problem with the psychodynamic explanations
As although their findings as a correlation between prolonged separation and emotional problems it doesn't show that one caused the other
Emotional problems can be e by other variables like discord between mother and child
Weakness as it shows no causal fondue and that it represents an issue with correlation it only shows association
112
Explain how the psychodynamic theory is gender biased
Frued views on women's were ignorant and less developed than his opinions men ie in the phallic stage he suggests women develops a weaker superego than men as they don't strongly identify with their same sex parent,because he felt women were of a lower status then man so there wouldn't be a reason to identify with them
Weakness as it shows alpha bias in which he has exaggerated the difference between men and women and devalued them in the process furthermore it is androcentric
113
How is the psychodynamic theory reductionist
It fails to take into account other factors that lead to delinquency ie poverty,bad housing
David farrning found the most important risk factor in offending behaviour in later life were poverty,low school attainment,family history of criminality
Shows the psychodynamic approach only limits offending behaviour to emotion and fails to take into account situational factors
114
What is recidivism
This is that after receiving a form of punishment a person goes into reoffend
115
What is custodial seneticing
When an offender is required by the courts to be held in prison or closed community
116
What are the aims of custodial sentencing and give an explanation for each one
To deter others-(SLT) long prison sentence are key as they discourage other people in the population from committing crimes
To protect the public(incapacitation)-
To punish an offender and prevent recidivism-punishment is done as it decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated although it doesn't always work
To atone for wrongdoing(retribution)- the family/friends of the victim feel a sense of justice being don't
To rehabilitate others-this is that in prison they revive therapy to help treat any Underlying disorder
117
What are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing
Deindividuatoin
Effects on family- children with a parent in prison are psychologically and financially affected parents may feel guilt also
Depression self harm and suicide-prisoners feel a sense of hopelessness about their future and current situation
Overcrowding and lack of privacy-research is showing that the increasing prison population is not matched by Increase in prisons and it leads to increased physical illness and stress
118
What is deindividuation
This is when an individual begins to lose their identity and its associated with increased aggression and treating people inhumanly
119
State 3 weaknesses of custodial sentencing (evaluation points) and give another evaluation point
Prisons training ground for crime
Punishment isn't seen as effective
The benefits of non-custodial sentencing
Individual differences in recidivism
120
Explain how punishment isn't seen as effective in custodial sentencing (evaluation point)
Research has shown punishment doesn't work due to high levels of recidivism
Behavioursists state the reason it doesn't work is because it doesn't occur immediately and offenders see the sentence as punishment for being caught and not for offending so what they learn is to avoid for being caught rather than feeling remorse
Limitation as it shows punishments isn't effective in custodial sentencing and that prisoners don't grasp the severity of their actions which enables them to reoffend
121
Explain the evaluation point that prison are a training ground for crime and how it's a weakness custodial Sentencing
Research has shown that prisons increase the likelihood of reoffending this is due to in prisons they would have association with people who have pro criminal attitudes so they learn new ways to be more successful at committing crimes
This is supported by latessa and lowenkamp who found that placing low risk offenders in terms of recidivism with high risk offenders makes the low risk ones more likely to reoffending shows that rather than preventing crime prisons are enhancing it
122
Explain what research has shown about individual differences in recidivism (evaluation point for recidivism)
Research has shown that rates of recidivism vary with age and crime with younger people more likely to offend and those who commit crimes like theft and bulgary are twice as likley to reoffend in comparison with those who commit drug and sex offences
It can be applied in real life in the sense that sentencing can vary for crimes
123
What has research shown about non custodial sentencing and how is it a better alternative to custodial sentencing Ao3 for custodial sentencing and state what klein et al showed
Research has shown that alternatives to custodial sentencing like probation fines and asbos and community service are better alternatives
Klein et al shows that cautions are better deterrents than arrests
Also offenders that are sentenced to community rehab are less likely to reoffend
Furthermore the problems in prison ie suicide can be avoided by non custodial sentencing
Shows non custodial sentences are more effective
124
What is token economy
A form of therapy where desirable behaviours are encouraged by the use of reinforcement using tokens as secondary reinforcers
125
How does token economy work
Tokens are given when a prisoners conducts good deeds/desirable and they are exchanged for privileges
Ie when they are polite to guards they gain a token and they can exchange it for previlages
126
What is behavioural modification
Technique using operant conditioning used to decrease the frequencies of behaviours occurinh
127
What are the two key aspects of token economy
Target behaviours must be clearly specified in a hierarchy where some behaviours get more tokens than others
Reward must be clearly defined
128
State a study that supports token economy and describe the procedure and state how the findings supports token economy
Hobbs and Holt
They observed 125 delinquent males were and compared to a control group where boys didn't receive tokens
They told boys each day how many tokens they earned and then they were taken to a store once a week where they could buy things
They found baseline mean percentages for social behaviours increased it before it was 66,47,73 after the tokens the average increased by an of 27% for each cottage
Shows the positive impacts of the token
129
Give 4 evaluation points for token economy
Ethical issues
Advantages over other methods
Long term it's not good
Individual differences
130
How does token economy have advantages over other methods A03
It's clearly defined and so as a result it's easy to implement.It doesn't require the need of trained psychologists for implementation it aids in controlling unruly behaviour via use of reinforcement
It's easy implementation means it more likely to be used by prison staff
131
Why is token economy not useful long term Ao3
It's not useful in the long term because in the real world once rewards cease the stimulus response link is lost,furthermore desirable behaviours in prisons may not apply in the real world ie walking in straight,also prisoners just conform to gain rewards but on the outside they will just display their deviant behaviour
Weaknesses shows it's not benefitcal
132
How does token economy raise ethical issues AO3
It's a violation of human rights as individuals behaviour is manipulated without their consent l,also their basic needs like food,visits are conditioned which is potentially unfair as not all prisoners will be able to control their behaviour meaning they wouldn't be able to obtain tokens
Weakness as it's unethical In practice
133
State what research has shown about individual differences in token economy AO3
Research show it varies on people
For example with juvenile delinquents cohen and filipcjack found after a year of being trained with token economy that these offenders were less likely to reoffend
However rice et al studied 92 men in a psychatric hospital and found that 50% of men treated with Token economy reoffends
Shows that It's not beneficial for all type of offenders so be reoffended
134
What is anger management
It's a type of CBT in which a patient is taught how to mange their anger it includes 3 techniques cognitive reconstruction,behavioural therapy and skill accqustion
135
What are the key aims of anger management
Cognitive restructuring-it involves greater self awareness and control over their anger
Regulation of arousal- this when they learn to control their physiological state
Behavioural strategies-this includes problem solving skills as well as strategic withdraw(ways of diffusing anger
136
What are the 3 steps of the stress inoculation
Cognitive preparation-where they learn about anger initially and they analyse their anger patterns and they identify which situations bring about anger in them
Skill acquisition-this stage they are taught skills that aid in managing their anger
Application training-they intially apply their skills in a controlled environment that's not threatening like role plays or situations that annoy them
137
Give 4 evaluation points for anger management
Taylor and novaco
Methodological issues
Limitations of anger mangement programmes
Timothy Trimble et al
138
What did Taylor and novaco find out along with lipsey and how is this a strength of anger management
From results of a meta analysis they found a 75% improvement when using anger management therapy
Furthermore landenberger and Lipsey found from 58 studies in which 20 used anger control as therapy they found it was significantly related to improvement
Strength as it shows anger management is successful in practice and has resulted in improvement among patients
139
What methodological issues are associated with anger management and how is this a weakness of therapy
Self report and observations is used to asses anger management which are both subjected to bias ie staff may not like some offenders getting them to do anger management out of spite
Furthermore issue with the hello goodbye affect where patients after treatment may portray themselfves in a more positive light as they want to show how helpful and useful the therapy was
Limitation as it creates a problem with bias in which validity of results are hampered
140
What limitations are there to do with anger management Ao3
The use of CBt and anger management isn't suitable for everyone
Some offenders may drop out as it's voluntary some may not take it seriously
Some offenders may find it differcult to make an effort in changing their attitudes/behaviour furthermore they may find the treatment to be to time consuming
Weakness as it shows the procedure in anger management is tedious and has several flaws which reduce the likelihood of it being completed
141
What was Timothy and Trimble study and how does it support anger management
They reported in an anger management programme with 105 offenders on probation in Northern Ireland it involved offenders whose anger predisposed them to offending
They found the programme had reduced significant expressions of anger as well as the amount of anger that offenders experienced in comparison to pretreatment scores
Strength highlights how effective anger management is
142
What if restorative justice
This is a method of atoning for offending behaviour via reconciliation between victim and offender and the wider community
143
State methods of interaction in restorative justice
Face to face meeting,video camera
144
What are the aims of restorative justice
Rehab for offenders
Victims perspective
Atonement for wrongdoing
145
Describe the aim rehab for offenders in RJ
It's that offenders learn to take the perspective of others which reduces chances of reoffending
They are also encouraged to take responsibility for their actions
146
Explain the aim atonement for wrongdoing
The offender may have to do unpaid community service
They express guilt and empathy
147
What is the aim of Victims perspective
That the victim can reduce their sense of victimisation as they have a voice
They gain an understanding of why the offender did what they did
148
What happens In peace circles
A talking piece is passed around and the person with it can speak uninterrupted
149
Give 4 evaluation points for restorative justice
Can't be used in all scenarios
Success from victims perspectives
Success in reducing offending behaviour
Ethical issues
150
Describe why RJ can't be applied to all scenarios
The system can't apply to all offenders and victims this is because some crimes may not be suitable for this process ie murder
The though of seeing offender maybe to traumatic for the victim meaning they don't take part indicates that it's limited in use
151
What has research shown about the success of RJ and how is this a strength
U.K. Restorative justice council report 85% satisfaction from victims face to face meetings with their offenders and the reports of satisfaction covered a large range of crime Avon and Somerset reported 92.5 victim satisfaction with RJ when the victim had been subjected to violent fume
152
What has research shown about the effectiveness of RJ in reducing reoffending A03
Sherman and strang in a review of 20 studies of face to face meeting between offender and victim in the U.K. And Australia then found a showed reduced reoffending,furthermore U.K. RJC found an overall 14% reduction in recidivism rates
Strength highlights how effective it is
153
How does RJ create ethical issues and why is this weakness AO3
It creates ethical issues for victims perspective as they may feel worse from metrung the offender face to face as the offender may not have suitable reason as to why they committed their crime
From offenders perspective it can lead to abuse of power if they face their victim as they may shame the offender for their crime
Limitation has it highlight the delicate nature of RJ
