Memory Flashcards
1
Q
How can STM and ltm distinguished
A
Coding capacity duration
2
Q
What is capacity
A
How much data can be held in a memory store
3
Q
How does capacity differ between ltm and STM
A
In ltm capacity is potentially infinite while capacity of STM is limited
4
Q
Name some tests that have explained the capacity of STM
A
Joseph Jacobs digit span George miller magic 7+_2
5
Q
Describe the procedure in Jacobs digit span(1887)and what were findings
A
Participants were first given a list of letters to recall and then a list of numbers to recall Jacobs found that people were able to recall numbers easier then could letters
6
Q
What was George millers magic 7+_2
A
He states that the span of immediate memory was 7 items more of less and that when we chucked things we could remember things more
7
Q
What is STM
A
When an individual tries to remember events that occur in our present or immediate past
8
Q
What is duration
A
How long a memory lasts till it’s no longer available Ltm can last forever while STM dosent last as long
9
Q
Name a test for duration of short term memory
A
Peterson and Peterson 1958
10
Q
Describe the procedure for the Peterson Peterson study
A
24 participants were used over 8 trails they were asked to recite a conansant syllable (thx) after a retention interval for 3 sec to 18sec during this retention interval they had count backwards from a 3 digit number
11
Q
What were the findings from the Peterson and Peterson 1958 study and the conclusion
A
They found that after the interval time was Increased the average number of participants who correctly racial led their constants decreased The conclusion was that the duration of STM is short when rehearsal is prevented
12
Q
Name a test for the duration of ltm
A
Bahrick et al 1975
13
Q
Describe the procedure for bahrick et al
A
400 participants (Ages17-74) we’re tested to see if they could remember there class mates Two tests were conducted in which participants were given 50 photos of their classmates and they were asked to state if they could remember them The next test was free recall in which they were asked to remember as many of there class mates as possible
14
Q
What were the results in the bahrick et al
A
They found in face recognition who had graduated 15 years early were accurate 90% of the time while after 45 years of graduated the accuracy dropped to 70%While in the in the free recall the accuracy was 60 % after 15 years since graduation and after 45 years it dropped
15
Q
What’s coding
A
The way information that we receive is altered so it can be stored in ones memory
16
Q
What are 3 types or coding
A
Acoustic Semantic visual
17
Q
What is visual coding
A
Coding by the use of images
18
Q
What is acoustic coding
A
Memory with the use of sounds
19
Q
What is semantic coding
A
Information that is stored and the meaning is similar
20
Q
What is the multi store model and who comprised it
A
MSm was comprised by Richard Atkinson and it is made up of 3 main stores sensory register STM and ltm and all 3 are linked by the processes of attention retrieval maintenance rehearsal and this is how info is passed into each store
21
Q
What is the sensory register in the multi store model
A
Information is held in each of out senses eyes tongues eyed it has a large capacity but small duration meaning information disappears if we don’t focus our attention on it
22
Q
What is the process of attention within the msm
A
It is how information for our sensory stores is transferred to STM it’s a a result of us focusing on one of the sensory stores
23
Q
What is STM in regards to the msm
A
We use the information for immediate tasks it has limited capacity and duration
24
Q
What is Maintenance rehearsal
A
This is repetition of info so it will last longer in STM and it leads onto ltm eventually
25
What is ltm in the msm
It has a potentially unlimited capacity and duration
26
What is retrieval
It's how we get info from ltm as it invovles info going back through STM
27
What evidence supports The MsM
Brain scans of different areas of the brain hippocampus ltm prefrontal cortex
STM Case studies involving brain damaged patients (HM)
28
How does the study of HM support msm
Scoville and Milner 1957 to stop his epilepsy they removed his hippocampus it worked but it meant that he couldn't form new ltm but could stil form STM so it shows they are separate this supporting msm
29
What is ltm
an individuals memory for events that have occurred in the more distant past
30
Name brain scan studies that support msm
Beardsley 1997 they found during STM tasks out prefrontal cortex was active but not during ltm
Squire et al 1992 found during ltm tasks the hippocampus was active
31
How is msm being deemed to simple a limitation
It states ltm and STM are single stores but WMM is a contradiction as it states STM alone is separated into 3 stores and that are different types of ltm
32
What are some Critisims of the Msm
It is to simple ( baddeley wmm)
The fact that ltm is more maintenance rhearsal ( Craig and tulving 1975) provides evidence
33
Name a study on ltm that contradicts the msm
Craik and tulving 1975
34
Describe the procedure in Craig and tulving 1975
They thought remembering in ltm was more complex
They rested this by asking participants questions which involved the use of deep and shallow processing after they gave them nouns
Shallow processing in this was asking them whether the was in capital or not
Deep was asking them to place the nouns in sentence
35
What were the findings of Craig and tulvings study
They found participants remembering words involving deep processing rather than shallow
Shows that remembering in ltm is more complex
36
What is the working memory model and who comprised
That STM is divided into 4 compnanets and it was comprised by Alan baddeley
37
What is the wmm made up of
Central executive Phonological loop Visuo spatial steckpad Episodic buffer
38
What is the function of central executive
It directs attention to particular tasks this is done by how the slave systems are allocated to tasksJIt has limited capacity
39
What is the phonological loop
It deals with auditory information and preservers the order of information
40
In 1986 what did baddeley subdived the loop into
The phonological store and articulately process
41
What is the function if the phonological store
Words that we hear are held in the phonological store
42
What is the function of the articulatory process
It holds words that we hear or see and they are repeated like a inner voice
43
What is the Visuo spatial sketch pad
It is used for spatial tasks like moving from one room to another
And visual info is processed here
44
What is visual info and what is spatial info
Visuo info is what things look like Spatial info - the physical relationship between things
45
What did logie suggest the Visuo spatial was divided into
Visual cache and inner scribe
46
What is the visual cache and inner scribe
Visual cache visual info is stored there from form and colour
Inner scribe stores the arrangement of objects in visual field
47
What is function of the episodic buffer
It's a extra storage system and it intergrates info from the other slave systems and the Ce Records events and sends info to ltm
48
What is supporting evidence of the WMM
Dual task experiment Evidence from brain damaged patients
49
Describe the dual task experiment (baddely and hitch 1976)
The participants did two tasks, first task was that they were given Statements and had to say if they were true or false, task 2 they had to repeat the word"the" or saying random digits they had to do it at the same time
50
What limitations are there of the WMM
The central executive is deemed to be to vague and must be more complex
Evidence from brain damaged patients
51
What evidence is there to show that the description of CE is to vague
Patients Evr (eslinger and damasio)1985 He had a Tumor removed he had poor descion making skills but good reasoning skills which suggests his Ce wasn't wholly intact and must be more complex
52
How might evidence from brain damaged patients be a limitation of the WMM
The evidence may be invalid Due the the tramua brain damage causes it may result in the person to change their behaviour resulting in them doing poor on some tasks some individuals may struggle to pay attention which causes a Differculty l
53
Name brain scans studies that support the WMM
Trojano and grossi 1995 patient sc struggled to learn word pairs said out loud but had good learning abilities showing damage to his phonological loop
Farah et al 1988 patient LH did better on spatial tasks rather than those involving imagery so it shows visual and spatial system are separate
54
What are the two main types of ltm
Declarative and procedural memory
55
What is the distinction between procedural and declarative memory
Declarative is knowing that Procedural is knowing how
56
Name the types of declarative memory
Episodic Semantic
57
What is episodic memory
Memory to do with a persons personal experiences ( like the first day of sixth form) It has 3 elements emotion context and specfic details about the event
58
What is semantic memory
Memory to do with our knowledge of the world Like facts, social customs and abstract things like maths It is first episodic memory but as it loses association with a particular event it becomes semantic
59
What is procedural memory
It is the ability to remember skills ie riding a bike it acquired through repetition and practice and unlike the other forms of memory it's automatic meaning we don't have to think about it
60
Name surrporting evidence/strengths of the 3 types if ltm
Evidence from brain scans
We can distinguish between procedural and declarative memory
Hodges and Patterson
61
How does evidence from brain scans surrport that there are 3 types of ltm
They have shown that when the different ltms are active some are different parts of the brainFor instance episodic memory is associated with the hippocampus and frontal loop Semantic memory is associated with the temporal lope Procedural memory is associates when the cerebellum. Which controls motor skills
62
Why is using evidence from brain damaged patients a problem with the 3 types of ltm
It's difficult to use evidence from brain damaged patients as we can't determine which parts of their brain how been affected till they are dead,most studies with testing ltm use living patients and if the a certain area of their brain is damaged it doesn't mean that it's the reason for a patient exihibiting a certain behaviour it may be acting as a relay station and if it malfunctions it may impair performance
So using results from brain damaged patients is invalid
63
What evidence is there that limits the types of ltm
(Evaluation
Evidence from Brain scans ( unethical traumatic experience
64
Describe the Hm follow up study and how does it support
Corkin(2000) he could mirror drawing in which he would draw a figure by looking at its reflection in a mirror,although he was unaware of how he learned how to do this
Supports the existence of procedural memory has the ability to do this shows it's automatic and allows us to distinguish between the lTms
65
What is interference
When one memory disrupts the recollection of another memory it mosts likely to happen when they are similar
66
What is proactive interference
When past memory disrupts the ability to recall recently acquired memory
67
What is retroactive interference
When new memory is disrupted as a result of old memory
68
Describe muller and pizecker 1900 for retroactive interference
They got participants to learn a list of nonsense syallables for 6 mins then after a retention interval they would recall them One group were asked to describe 3 landscapes during the retention interval
69
What were the findings of muller 1900
They found that the participants who were asked to describe the landscape during retention interval did worse in the recall Gives proof of the effect of retroactive interference
70
Name a experiment or study that supports proactive interference
Brian underwood 1957
71
Describe the procedure in the study for proactive interference 1957
He analysed a number of studies and stated that when participants learned a series of word lists they only learnt some of the word lists not all
72
What were the findings of his study
He found those who learnt 10 word lists or more recall was only 20% but those who learnt only 1 world list recall was 70%
73
How does this study explain proactive interference
As by them learning more word lists it's harder to recall the next word list showing past memory (previous word lists) where preventive the recall of newly learnt memory
74
Describe what happened Mcgeoch and Macdonald (1931)
They gave participants two lists list A which was adjectives and list B which at first was numbers then nonsense syallables and then synonyms
75
Describe the findings in the Mcgeoch and Macdonald
If list B was synonyms recall was worst as it was 12% if it was nonsense syallables recall was 26% and if it was numbers it was 37%
76
How does Mcgeoch abd Macdonald findings support interference
As it shows interference is strongest when material is similar and the effects can only be explained by interference
77
Name strengths on the interference theory
It's got lots of lab support Real world application (baddeley and hitch 1977 rugby players
78
What are limitations of the interference theory
Research is rather artificial Interference only explains some forgetting Individual differences
79
What are cues
They are items that serve as a reminder to individuals at the time They can be environmental cues like a room or place Mental state may act as a cue depending on if a person is drunk or sober
80
What is retrieval failure
The inability for a person to recall memory due to the absence of cues
81
Describe what happened in the tulving and pearlstone (1966
It was used to show the value of cues They got participants to recall 48 words thar could be placed in categories (Apple -fruit) One condition was free call which was people were told to recall as many words as they could The other condition was that participants where given cues in the form of the categories of which the words could be placed in
82
What were the findings of tulving and pearlstone 1966
The free recall condition recall was 40% and the condition when cues where given the recall was 60% which shows how valuable cues are
83
Name a experiment that shows context dependant forgetting
Ethel Abernathy 1944
84
Describe what happened in the study on context dependant forgetting
Participants where tested before a course started. In one condition the participants where tested in the same room they were taught by their usual instructor, in the other condition they were tested by the same instructor but in another room , in the another condition they were tested by a different instructor same room and in the last condition they were tested by a different instructor in a different room
85
What were the findings in abernathys study
They found that participants tested in the same room by the same instructor did the best as the room and instructor acted as cues
86
Name a study that shows state dependant forgetting
Goodwin et al 1969
87
Describe what happened in the Goodwin et al 1969
They got male volunteers to learn words either when they were drunk or sober and after 24 hours they were asked to recall the words in the previous state
88
What were the findings of the Goodwin et al
They found that recall was better when individual was in the same state that they were when the information was learnt If They were drunk the info was more accessible if they were drunk in recall
89
Give evidence that supports retrieval failure due to absence of cues
Lots of lab research that supports the theory ( Ethel Abernathy 1940)Tulving pearlstone and Goodwin et all Real life application ( smith et al) 1979 help in improving revision techniques and cognitive interview
90
What is a limitation of this theory
Retrieval cues don't always work Smith and vela
91
What is leading question
A question by it's form or content that gives a suggestion to the witness the answer that is wanted or leads then to the desired answer
92
What is misleading information
This is when a witness is supplied information that may alter memory of a crime
93
What is eyewitness testimony
When a person provides evidence in a court after they have witnessed a crime
94
Name a study into the effect of leading question
Loftus and palmar 1974
95
Describe loftus and palmars study in the first procedure
They got 45 students and showed them 7 films of different traffic accidents They were asked to describe the accident and after they were given questionnaire and where given a series of specific questions and where given a critical question How fast was the car going when they hit each other, that was given for one group but changed each time for different groups The verbs used were bumped contacted smash collided
96
What were the findings of loftus and palmer
They found when the verb was smashed the speed was 40.1 but when the verb given was contacted the speed given was 31.8
97
What did the findings of loftus and palmer show
It show that the leading question had a significant effect on the speed given by the participants
98
Name a study into the effect of leading question
Loftus and palmar 1974
99
What happened in the second procedure conducted by loftus and palmer
They got a brand new set of participants and divided them into 3 groups and they were shown 3 films lasting one min each and asked how questions about how the fast the car was going After a week they returned and were asked did you see any broken glass
100
What were the findings of loftus and palmer second procedure
The results showed that the leading question causes the memory of the participants to change as there wasn't any broken glass
101
Name supporting pieces of evidence for the loftus and palmer study
Braun et al 2002 Real world application
102
Name Critisims/limitations of loftus and palmer experiment
The effect of ewt in real life supported by some studies foster et al (1994) and yuile et cutshall 1986
103
What happened in the Braun et al study and how does it support loftus and palmer findings
They got college students to evaluate advertising from Disney( it contained misleading about bugs bunny and ariel as bugs isn't a Disney character and Ariel wasn't introduced at the time of their childhood) the college students were split into 3 groups a bugs group ariel and control that didn't contain misleading information They all went to Disney land and found the people in the bugs and ariel group were more likely to say they shook hands with them compared to the control group Shows how misleading can create false memory
104
How can loftus and palmer findings be applied to real life
It shows that that eyewitness testimony in court shouldn't be solely relied on as evidence due to in accuracy This is backed up by wells and Olson 2003 which showed that misleading info was the biggest factor in the conviction is innocent people which shows how unreliable eyewitness testimony is
105
What did foster et al 1994 show that contradicts loftus and palmer findings ( ewt in real life)
They found that eyewitness identification of a robber was more accurate when they thought they were responses would influence a real life case
106
What did yuile and cutshall 1986 that contradicts the findings of loftus and palmer (ewt in real life)
They also found ewt was more accurate in real life They interviewed participants 4 months after a bank robbery in Canada and despite giving them two misleading questions All witnesses gave accurate and detailed reports of the incident suggesting ewt in real life is less effective
107
What is anxiety
When an individual is in an emotionally unpleasant state which is accompanied by rapid breathing and increase in heart rate
108
What do some people believe the effect of anxiety being on the accuracy of ewt
It's believed to have a negative effect on accuracy
109
What is weapon focus effect and how does it show that anxiety had a negative effect on
It's that when a witness views a weapon it creates anxiety end this distracts them from other features of incident like the criminals face
110
Name a experiment that supports the weapon focus effect
Johnson and Scott 1976
111
Describe the procedure in Johnson and Scott experiment
They got participants to wait in a waiting room where they would hear an argument and a man would come out with a grease covered pen (low anxiety) or a blood covered knife (high anxiety) after they were asked to identify from a set of photos the man
112
What where the findings In Johnson and Scott's study
They found that it supported weapon focus effect with the accuracy in identifying the man in the grease covered pen 49%
While in the blood covered knife the accuracy was 33% showing the effect anxiety had on them
113
What is the contradictory argument on anxiety
That high anxiety has an enduring on positive effect on recall
114
Name a study that supports that anxiety leads to enhances recall
Christianson and hubinette 1993
115
What was the procedure in Christianson and hubinette
They questioned 58 real life witnesses to a robbery in Sweden. They were either victims ie bank tellers (high anxiety) or bystanders employees/ customers low anxiety they were interviewed 4-15 months after the robbery
116
What were the findings of Christianson and Hubinette 1993
They found all victims had good memories of the incident 75% recall they found those who were most anxious had the best recall this supporting the theory of enhanced recall
117
What did Kenneth deffenbacher 1983 do to try and resolve the contradiction
He reviewed 21 studies that effects of anxiety on eyewitness testimony and found the studies linked high arousal to To reduced accuracy in 11 studies and in 10 studies high arousal was linked to Increases accuracy in eye witness accuracy
118
What did deffenbacher use to explain the inconsistent findings
He used the yerkes Dodson effect
119
What did yerkes Dodson effect state
It states that eyewitness accuracy is enhanced when anxiety is moderate ie bank robberies
And that eye witness accuracy is reduced on occasions when anxiety/ arousal is too extreme ie rape
120
Give 4 evaluation points for the effect of anxiety on accuracy of eye witness testimony
Pickel 1998
Weakness of real life studies
Loftus et al
Issue with lab settings
121
How are lab settings an issue with explaining negative effects of anxiety
Evaluation
Lab settings in research like Johnson and Scott are done in artificial environment like lab in which participants may lack motivation to do tasks properly which may hamper with results unlike in real life
Limitations are these results may lack I. Validity as participants haven't taken the experiment seriously
122
What did pickel do and how is it a limitation of the effects of anxiety on eyewitness testimony
They found in a study that identification was least accurate in a high surprise condition ie when the perpetrator came in with a handgun and chicken
It thereby contradicts the fact that weapon focus effect is down to anxiety when it is in fact caused by surprise
123
What did doffenbacher et al find and how is it a limitation of high anxiety being leading to accuracy on eye witness testimony
They did a review of 34 real life studies and found that they had a greater loss in accuracy than lab studies in studies of general effects of anxiety
So it shows that real life studies aren't reliable in explaining effects of anxiety as they are to inconsistent and contradicts the view of hubbinette that anxiety caused by real life events leads to greater accuracy
124
What did foster et al find and how is it a strength of anxiety having negative effects on accuracy
They monitored eyewitness eye move yet and they found central figures like the weapon caused attention to be drawn towards itself and away from other features like the criminals face
Shows that anxiety draws attention from crucial features thus resulting in reduced accuracy and identification
125
What did geiselman et al 1984 do
They developed Cognitive interview in order to help gain effective memory recall
126
What are the 4 components of CI
Change order
Change in perspective
Recall everything mental reinstatement of original context
127
What is mental reinstatement of original context
This is when the interviewee is encouraged to recreate a physical and psychological environment of the original incident in question
128
What is the purpose of mental reinstatement of original
It is to make memory more accessible it enables the use of appropriate contextual and emotional cues that allows us to retrieve memories
129
What happens in report everything of the CI
The interviewee is encourage to report every detail that occurred in the incident even is it seems irrelevant
130
What is the purpose is report everything
It's because memories are interlinked and by recalling one memory it can be a link/cue for a whole lots of other memories
And by recalling small details it's can be pieces forget her by other witness
131
What is done in change order of events and what is the purpose of this
The interviewee will be asked to reverse the events that occurred in the incident so it's recalled backwards
This is fine to stop pre existing schemes from influencing the recollection of events
132
What is schema
General expectations of an event
133
What is change perspective and it's purpose
The interviewee is asked to recall the events from mulitple perspectives and how it will be viewed by them
This is done to stop the influence of schema
134
What did fisher and geiselman 1992 find was wrong with standard police interview
Interviewer unconsciously asked leading questions which leads
Questions are premeditated
Interviewee was discouraged from giving additional information
Interviewer asked specfic questions yes or no
135
What are limitations of CI
Quantity vs quality
Difficulties in establishing the effectiveness
Problems with using CI In practice
136
How does kohnken et al 1999 is strength of CI
They did a meta analysis if 53 studies and found 34% increase in the amount of correct info given as a result of CI which shows how effective CI
136
How does Milne and bull 2002 support CI
They used a combo or the techniques within CI when interviewing undergrads and children
And found the highest recall was when they used report everything and mental reinstatement rather than just one individual techniques p
137
How is quality vs quantity a limitation of CI
It is meant to enhance the the quantity of info without comprising the quality but this wasn't true
Kohnken et al 1999 found al there was a 61% increase incorrect information despite an 81% the amount of info showing that CI isn't accurate
139
How is difficulties in establishing the effectiveness of CI a limitation
Kennel and wag staff 1996 found police officers don't use all the components of CI they only use some
Report everything and reinstate context this makes it Differcult to judge how effective it is
140
How is problem of using CI in practice a limitation
Kebbell and wag staff 1996 they found that many police officers stated using CI Interview takes a longer time than avaliable
It requires special training which is more than police forces are willing to provide
141
What was hodges and Patterson study and how does it support the 3 types of ltm
They studied patients with Alzheimer's disease and found some could form episodic memories but not semantic ones which shows them are separate and that they maybe localised in the brain.
142
Why is the research into interference being artificial a weakness
As the studies are lab based and the findings don't relate to everyday uses of memory as nonsense syllables are learnt
People are also aware of what's occuring so may lack in motivation do to the test properly so the result may appear stronger than they actually should be
It's weakness as it shows the studies like in ecological validity
143
How does interference only explaining some situations of forgetting a limitation of the study
It only occurs in special situations when two memories are similar
As a result it can be considered as quite an unimportant explanation for everyday forgetting
Anderson stated that although it has s role in forgetting,it's unclear how much of it can be attributed to forgetting
Weakness as it dosent play a significant role in forgetting therefore is viewed as unimportant
144
What is induced fit theory
That an enzyme molecule will change its shape slightly to fit more closely around a substrate
And only a specially shaped substrate will cause the enzyme to change correctly
145
State how STM is encoded
It's encoded acoustically
146
State how Ltm is encoded
It's encoded semantically
