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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

How can STM and ltm distinguished

A

Coding capacity duration

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2
Q

What is capacity

A

How much data can be held in a memory store

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3
Q

How does capacity differ between ltm and STM

A

In ltm capacity is potentially infinite while capacity of STM is limited

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4
Q

Name some tests that have explained the capacity of STM

A

Joseph Jacobs digit span George miller magic 7+_2

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5
Q

Describe the procedure in Jacobs digit span(1887)and what were findings

A

Participants were first given a list of letters to recall and then a list of numbers to recall Jacobs found that people were able to recall numbers easier then could letters

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6
Q

What was George millers magic 7+_2

A

He states that the span of immediate memory was 7 items more of less and that when we chucked things we could remember things more

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7
Q

What is STM

A

When an individual tries to remember events that occur in our present or immediate past

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8
Q

What is duration

A

How long a memory lasts till it’s no longer available Ltm can last forever while STM dosent last as long

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9
Q

Name a test for duration of short term memory

A

Peterson and Peterson 1958

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10
Q

Describe the procedure for the Peterson Peterson study

A

24 participants were used over 8 trails they were asked to recite a conansant syllable (thx) after a retention interval for 3 sec to 18sec during this retention interval they had count backwards from a 3 digit number

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11
Q

What were the findings from the Peterson and Peterson 1958 study and the conclusion

A

They found that after the interval time was Increased the average number of participants who correctly racial led their constants decreased The conclusion was that the duration of STM is short when rehearsal is prevented

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12
Q

Name a test for the duration of ltm

A

Bahrick et al 1975

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13
Q

Describe the procedure for bahrick et al

A

400 participants (Ages17-74) we’re tested to see if they could remember there class mates Two tests were conducted in which participants were given 50 photos of their classmates and they were asked to state if they could remember them The next test was free recall in which they were asked to remember as many of there class mates as possible

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14
Q

What were the results in the bahrick et al

A

They found in face recognition who had graduated 15 years early were accurate 90% of the time while after 45 years of graduated the accuracy dropped to 70%While in the in the free recall the accuracy was 60 % after 15 years since graduation and after 45 years it dropped

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15
Q

What’s coding

A

The way information that we receive is altered so it can be stored in ones memory

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16
Q

What are 3 types or coding

A

Acoustic Semantic visual

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17
Q

What is visual coding

A

Coding by the use of images

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18
Q

What is acoustic coding

A

Memory with the use of sounds

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19
Q

What is semantic coding

A

Information that is stored and the meaning is similar

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20
Q

What is the multi store model and who comprised it

A

MSm was comprised by Richard Atkinson and it is made up of 3 main stores sensory register STM and ltm and all 3 are linked by the processes of attention retrieval maintenance rehearsal and this is how info is passed into each store

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21
Q

What is the sensory register in the multi store model

A

Information is held in each of out senses eyes tongues eyed it has a large capacity but small duration meaning information disappears if we don’t focus our attention on it

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22
Q

What is the process of attention within the msm

A

It is how information for our sensory stores is transferred to STM it’s a a result of us focusing on one of the sensory stores

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23
Q

What is STM in regards to the msm

A

We use the information for immediate tasks it has limited capacity and duration

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24
Q

What is Maintenance rehearsal

A

This is repetition of info so it will last longer in STM and it leads onto ltm eventually

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25
Q

What is ltm in the msm

A

It has a potentially unlimited capacity and duration

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26
Q

What is retrieval

A

It’s how we get info from ltm as it invovles info going back through STM

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27
Q

What evidence supports The MsM

A

Brain scans of different areas of the brain hippocampus ltm prefrontal cortex

STM Case studies involving brain damaged patients (HM)

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28
Q

How does the study of HM support msm

A

Scoville and Milner 1957 to stop his epilepsy they removed his hippocampus it worked but it meant that he couldn’t form new ltm but could stil form STM so it shows they are separate this supporting msm

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29
Q

What is ltm

A

an individuals memory for events that have occurred in the more distant past

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30
Q

Name brain scan studies that support msm

A

Beardsley 1997 they found during STM tasks out prefrontal cortex was active but not during ltm

Squire et al 1992 found during ltm tasks the hippocampus was active

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31
Q

How is msm being deemed to simple a limitation

A

It states ltm and STM are single stores but WMM is a contradiction as it states STM alone is separated into 3 stores and that are different types of ltm

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32
Q

What are some Critisims of the Msm

A

It is to simple ( baddeley wmm)

The fact that ltm is more maintenance rhearsal ( Craig and tulving 1975) provides evidence

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33
Q

Name a study on ltm that contradicts the msm

A

Craik and tulving 1975

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34
Q

Describe the procedure in Craig and tulving 1975

A

They thought remembering in ltm was more complex

They rested this by asking participants questions which involved the use of deep and shallow processing after they gave them nouns

Shallow processing in this was asking them whether the was in capital or not

Deep was asking them to place the nouns in sentence

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35
Q

What were the findings of Craig and tulvings study

A

They found participants remembering words involving deep processing rather than shallow

Shows that remembering in ltm is more complex

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36
Q

What is the working memory model and who comprised

A

That STM is divided into 4 compnanets and it was comprised by Alan baddeley

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37
Q

What is the wmm made up of

A

Central executive Phonological loop Visuo spatial steckpad Episodic buffer

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38
Q

What is the function of central executive

A

It directs attention to particular tasks this is done by how the slave systems are allocated to tasksJIt has limited capacity

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39
Q

What is the phonological loop

A

It deals with auditory information and preservers the order of information

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40
Q

In 1986 what did baddeley subdived the loop into

A

The phonological store and articulately process

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41
Q

What is the function if the phonological store

A

Words that we hear are held in the phonological store

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42
Q

What is the function of the articulatory process

A

It holds words that we hear or see and they are repeated like a inner voice

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43
Q

What is the Visuo spatial sketch pad

A

It is used for spatial tasks like moving from one room to another

And visual info is processed here

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44
Q

What is visual info and what is spatial info

A

Visuo info is what things look like Spatial info - the physical relationship between things

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45
Q

What did logie suggest the Visuo spatial was divided into

A

Visual cache and inner scribe

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46
Q

What is the visual cache and inner scribe

A

Visual cache visual info is stored there from form and colour

Inner scribe stores the arrangement of objects in visual field

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47
Q

What is function of the episodic buffer

A

It’s a extra storage system and it intergrates info from the other slave systems and the Ce Records events and sends info to ltm

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48
Q

What is supporting evidence of the WMM

A

Dual task experiment Evidence from brain damaged patients

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49
Q

Describe the dual task experiment (baddely and hitch 1976)

A

The participants did two tasks, first task was that they were given Statements and had to say if they were true or false, task 2 they had to repeat the word”the” or saying random digits they had to do it at the same time

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50
Q

What limitations are there of the WMM

A

The central executive is deemed to be to vague and must be more complex

Evidence from brain damaged patients

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51
Q

What evidence is there to show that the description of CE is to vague

A

Patients Evr (eslinger and damasio)1985 He had a Tumor removed he had poor descion making skills but good reasoning skills which suggests his Ce wasn’t wholly intact and must be more complex

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52
Q

How might evidence from brain damaged patients be a limitation of the WMM

A

The evidence may be invalid Due the the tramua brain damage causes it may result in the person to change their behaviour resulting in them doing poor on some tasks some individuals may struggle to pay attention which causes a Differculty l

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53
Q

Name brain scans studies that support the WMM

A

Trojano and grossi 1995 patient sc struggled to learn word pairs said out loud but had good learning abilities showing damage to his phonological loop

Farah et al 1988 patient LH did better on spatial tasks rather than those involving imagery so it shows visual and spatial system are separate

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54
Q

What are the two main types of ltm

A

Declarative and procedural memory

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55
Q

What is the distinction between procedural and declarative memory

A

Declarative is knowing that Procedural is knowing how

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56
Q

Name the types of declarative memory

A

Episodic Semantic

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57
Q

What is episodic memory

A

Memory to do with a persons personal experiences ( like the first day of sixth form) It has 3 elements emotion context and specfic details about the event

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58
Q

What is semantic memory

A

Memory to do with our knowledge of the world Like facts, social customs and abstract things like maths It is first episodic memory but as it loses association with a particular event it becomes semantic

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59
Q

What is procedural memory

A

It is the ability to remember skills ie riding a bike it acquired through repetition and practice and unlike the other forms of memory it’s automatic meaning we don’t have to think about it

60
Q

Name surrporting evidence/strengths of the 3 types if ltm

A

Evidence from brain scans

We can distinguish between procedural and declarative memory

Hodges and Patterson

61
Q

How does evidence from brain scans surrport that there are 3 types of ltm

A

They have shown that when the different ltms are active some are different parts of the brainFor instance episodic memory is associated with the hippocampus and frontal loop Semantic memory is associated with the temporal lope Procedural memory is associates when the cerebellum. Which controls motor skills

62
Q

Why is using evidence from brain damaged patients a problem with the 3 types of ltm

A

It’s difficult to use evidence from brain damaged patients as we can’t determine which parts of their brain how been affected till they are dead,most studies with testing ltm use living patients and if the a certain area of their brain is damaged it doesn’t mean that it’s the reason for a patient exihibiting a certain behaviour it may be acting as a relay station and if it malfunctions it may impair performance

So using results from brain damaged patients is invalid

63
Q

What evidence is there that limits the types of ltm

(Evaluation

A

Evidence from Brain scans ( unethical traumatic experience

64
Q

Describe the Hm follow up study and how does it support

A

Corkin(2000) he could mirror drawing in which he would draw a figure by looking at its reflection in a mirror,although he was unaware of how he learned how to do this

Supports the existence of procedural memory has the ability to do this shows it’s automatic and allows us to distinguish between the lTms

65
Q

What is interference

A

When one memory disrupts the recollection of another memory it mosts likely to happen when they are similar

66
Q

What is proactive interference

A

When past memory disrupts the ability to recall recently acquired memory

67
Q

What is retroactive interference

A

When new memory is disrupted as a result of old memory

68
Q

Describe muller and pizecker 1900 for retroactive interference

A

They got participants to learn a list of nonsense syallables for 6 mins then after a retention interval they would recall them One group were asked to describe 3 landscapes during the retention interval

69
Q

What were the findings of muller 1900

A

They found that the participants who were asked to describe the landscape during retention interval did worse in the recall Gives proof of the effect of retroactive interference

70
Q

Name a experiment or study that supports proactive interference

A

Brian underwood 1957

71
Q

Describe the procedure in the study for proactive interference 1957

A

He analysed a number of studies and stated that when participants learned a series of word lists they only learnt some of the word lists not all

72
Q

What were the findings of his study

A

He found those who learnt 10 word lists or more recall was only 20% but those who learnt only 1 world list recall was 70%

73
Q

How does this study explain proactive interference

A

As by them learning more word lists it’s harder to recall the next word list showing past memory (previous word lists) where preventive the recall of newly learnt memory

74
Q

Describe what happened Mcgeoch and Macdonald (1931)

A

They gave participants two lists list A which was adjectives and list B which at first was numbers then nonsense syallables and then synonyms

75
Q

Describe the findings in the Mcgeoch and Macdonald

A

If list B was synonyms recall was worst as it was 12% if it was nonsense syallables recall was 26% and if it was numbers it was 37%

76
Q

How does Mcgeoch abd Macdonald findings support interference

A

As it shows interference is strongest when material is similar and the effects can only be explained by interference

77
Q

Name strengths on the interference theory

A

It’s got lots of lab support Real world application (baddeley and hitch 1977 rugby players

78
Q

What are limitations of the interference theory

A

Research is rather artificial Interference only explains some forgetting Individual differences

79
Q

What are cues

A

They are items that serve as a reminder to individuals at the time They can be environmental cues like a room or place Mental state may act as a cue depending on if a person is drunk or sober

80
Q

What is retrieval failure

A

The inability for a person to recall memory due to the absence of cues

81
Q

Describe what happened in the tulving and pearlstone (1966

A

It was used to show the value of cues They got participants to recall 48 words thar could be placed in categories (Apple -fruit) One condition was free call which was people were told to recall as many words as they could The other condition was that participants where given cues in the form of the categories of which the words could be placed in

82
Q

What were the findings of tulving and pearlstone 1966

A

The free recall condition recall was 40% and the condition when cues where given the recall was 60% which shows how valuable cues are

83
Q

Name a experiment that shows context dependant forgetting

A

Ethel Abernathy 1944

84
Q

Describe what happened in the study on context dependant forgetting

A

Participants where tested before a course started. In one condition the participants where tested in the same room they were taught by their usual instructor, in the other condition they were tested by the same instructor but in another room , in the another condition they were tested by a different instructor same room and in the last condition they were tested by a different instructor in a different room

85
Q

What were the findings in abernathys study

A

They found that participants tested in the same room by the same instructor did the best as the room and instructor acted as cues

86
Q

Name a study that shows state dependant forgetting

A

Goodwin et al 1969

87
Q

Describe what happened in the Goodwin et al 1969

A

They got male volunteers to learn words either when they were drunk or sober and after 24 hours they were asked to recall the words in the previous state

88
Q

What were the findings of the Goodwin et al

A

They found that recall was better when individual was in the same state that they were when the information was learnt If They were drunk the info was more accessible if they were drunk in recall

89
Q

Give evidence that supports retrieval failure due to absence of cues

A

Lots of lab research that supports the theory ( Ethel Abernathy 1940)Tulving pearlstone and Goodwin et all Real life application ( smith et al) 1979 help in improving revision techniques and cognitive interview

90
Q

What is a limitation of this theory

A

Retrieval cues don’t always work Smith and vela

91
Q

What is leading question

A

A question by it’s form or content that gives a suggestion to the witness the answer that is wanted or leads then to the desired answer

92
Q

What is misleading information

A

This is when a witness is supplied information that may alter memory of a crime

93
Q

What is eyewitness testimony

A

When a person provides evidence in a court after they have witnessed a crime

94
Q

Name a study into the effect of leading question

A

Loftus and palmar 1974

95
Q

Describe loftus and palmars study in the first procedure

A

They got 45 students and showed them 7 films of different traffic accidents They were asked to describe the accident and after they were given questionnaire and where given a series of specific questions and where given a critical question How fast was the car going when they hit each other, that was given for one group but changed each time for different groups The verbs used were bumped contacted smash collided

96
Q

What were the findings of loftus and palmer

A

They found when the verb was smashed the speed was 40.1 but when the verb given was contacted the speed given was 31.8

97
Q

What did the findings of loftus and palmer show

A

It show that the leading question had a significant effect on the speed given by the participants

98
Q

Name a study into the effect of leading question

A

Loftus and palmar 1974

99
Q

What happened in the second procedure conducted by loftus and palmer

A

They got a brand new set of participants and divided them into 3 groups and they were shown 3 films lasting one min each and asked how questions about how the fast the car was going After a week they returned and were asked did you see any broken glass

100
Q

What were the findings of loftus and palmer second procedure

A

The results showed that the leading question causes the memory of the participants to change as there wasn’t any broken glass

101
Q

Name supporting pieces of evidence for the loftus and palmer study

A

Braun et al 2002 Real world application

102
Q

Name Critisims/limitations of loftus and palmer experiment

A

The effect of ewt in real life supported by some studies foster et al (1994) and yuile et cutshall 1986

103
Q

What happened in the Braun et al study and how does it support loftus and palmer findings

A

They got college students to evaluate advertising from Disney( it contained misleading about bugs bunny and ariel as bugs isn’t a Disney character and Ariel wasn’t introduced at the time of their childhood) the college students were split into 3 groups a bugs group ariel and control that didn’t contain misleading information They all went to Disney land and found the people in the bugs and ariel group were more likely to say they shook hands with them compared to the control group Shows how misleading can create false memory

104
Q

How can loftus and palmer findings be applied to real life

A

It shows that that eyewitness testimony in court shouldn’t be solely relied on as evidence due to in accuracy This is backed up by wells and Olson 2003 which showed that misleading info was the biggest factor in the conviction is innocent people which shows how unreliable eyewitness testimony is

105
Q

What did foster et al 1994 show that contradicts loftus and palmer findings ( ewt in real life)

A

They found that eyewitness identification of a robber was more accurate when they thought they were responses would influence a real life case

106
Q

What did yuile and cutshall 1986 that contradicts the findings of loftus and palmer (ewt in real life)

A

They also found ewt was more accurate in real life They interviewed participants 4 months after a bank robbery in Canada and despite giving them two misleading questions All witnesses gave accurate and detailed reports of the incident suggesting ewt in real life is less effective

107
Q

What is anxiety

A

When an individual is in an emotionally unpleasant state which is accompanied by rapid breathing and increase in heart rate

108
Q

What do some people believe the effect of anxiety being on the accuracy of ewt

A

It’s believed to have a negative effect on accuracy

109
Q

What is weapon focus effect and how does it show that anxiety had a negative effect on

A

It’s that when a witness views a weapon it creates anxiety end this distracts them from other features of incident like the criminals face

110
Q

Name a experiment that supports the weapon focus effect

A

Johnson and Scott 1976

111
Q

Describe the procedure in Johnson and Scott experiment

A

They got participants to wait in a waiting room where they would hear an argument and a man would come out with a grease covered pen (low anxiety) or a blood covered knife (high anxiety) after they were asked to identify from a set of photos the man

112
Q

What where the findings In Johnson and Scott’s study

A

They found that it supported weapon focus effect with the accuracy in identifying the man in the grease covered pen 49%

While in the blood covered knife the accuracy was 33% showing the effect anxiety had on them

113
Q

What is the contradictory argument on anxiety

A

That high anxiety has an enduring on positive effect on recall

114
Q

Name a study that supports that anxiety leads to enhances recall

A

Christianson and hubinette 1993

115
Q

What was the procedure in Christianson and hubinette

A

They questioned 58 real life witnesses to a robbery in Sweden. They were either victims ie bank tellers (high anxiety) or bystanders employees/ customers low anxiety they were interviewed 4-15 months after the robbery

116
Q

What were the findings of Christianson and Hubinette 1993

A

They found all victims had good memories of the incident 75% recall they found those who were most anxious had the best recall this supporting the theory of enhanced recall

117
Q

What did Kenneth deffenbacher 1983 do to try and resolve the contradiction

A

He reviewed 21 studies that effects of anxiety on eyewitness testimony and found the studies linked high arousal to To reduced accuracy in 11 studies and in 10 studies high arousal was linked to Increases accuracy in eye witness accuracy

118
Q

What did deffenbacher use to explain the inconsistent findings

A

He used the yerkes Dodson effect

119
Q

What did yerkes Dodson effect state

A

It states that eyewitness accuracy is enhanced when anxiety is moderate ie bank robberies

And that eye witness accuracy is reduced on occasions when anxiety/ arousal is too extreme ie rape

120
Q

Give 4 evaluation points for the effect of anxiety on accuracy of eye witness testimony

A

Pickel 1998
Weakness of real life studies
Loftus et al

Issue with lab settings

121
Q

How are lab settings an issue with explaining negative effects of anxiety

Evaluation

A

Lab settings in research like Johnson and Scott are done in artificial environment like lab in which participants may lack motivation to do tasks properly which may hamper with results unlike in real life

Limitations are these results may lack I. Validity as participants haven’t taken the experiment seriously

122
Q

What did pickel do and how is it a limitation of the effects of anxiety on eyewitness testimony

A

They found in a study that identification was least accurate in a high surprise condition ie when the perpetrator came in with a handgun and chicken

It thereby contradicts the fact that weapon focus effect is down to anxiety when it is in fact caused by surprise

123
Q

What did doffenbacher et al find and how is it a limitation of high anxiety being leading to accuracy on eye witness testimony

A

They did a review of 34 real life studies and found that they had a greater loss in accuracy than lab studies in studies of general effects of anxiety

So it shows that real life studies aren’t reliable in explaining effects of anxiety as they are to inconsistent and contradicts the view of hubbinette that anxiety caused by real life events leads to greater accuracy

124
Q

What did foster et al find and how is it a strength of anxiety having negative effects on accuracy

A

They monitored eyewitness eye move yet and they found central figures like the weapon caused attention to be drawn towards itself and away from other features like the criminals face

Shows that anxiety draws attention from crucial features thus resulting in reduced accuracy and identification

125
Q

What did geiselman et al 1984 do

A

They developed Cognitive interview in order to help gain effective memory recall

126
Q

What are the 4 components of CI

A

Change order
Change in perspective
Recall everything mental reinstatement of original context

127
Q

What is mental reinstatement of original context

A

This is when the interviewee is encouraged to recreate a physical and psychological environment of the original incident in question

128
Q

What is the purpose of mental reinstatement of original

A

It is to make memory more accessible it enables the use of appropriate contextual and emotional cues that allows us to retrieve memories

129
Q

What happens in report everything of the CI

A

The interviewee is encourage to report every detail that occurred in the incident even is it seems irrelevant

130
Q

What is the purpose is report everything

A

It’s because memories are interlinked and by recalling one memory it can be a link/cue for a whole lots of other memories

And by recalling small details it’s can be pieces forget her by other witness

131
Q

What is done in change order of events and what is the purpose of this

A

The interviewee will be asked to reverse the events that occurred in the incident so it’s recalled backwards

This is fine to stop pre existing schemes from influencing the recollection of events

132
Q

What is schema

A

General expectations of an event

133
Q

What is change perspective and it’s purpose

A

The interviewee is asked to recall the events from mulitple perspectives and how it will be viewed by them

This is done to stop the influence of schema

134
Q

What did fisher and geiselman 1992 find was wrong with standard police interview

A

Interviewer unconsciously asked leading questions which leads

Questions are premeditated

Interviewee was discouraged from giving additional information

Interviewer asked specfic questions yes or no

135
Q

What are limitations of CI

A

Quantity vs quality

Difficulties in establishing the effectiveness

Problems with using CI In practice

136
Q

How does kohnken et al 1999 is strength of CI

A

They did a meta analysis if 53 studies and found 34% increase in the amount of correct info given as a result of CI which shows how effective CI

136
Q

How does Milne and bull 2002 support CI

A

They used a combo or the techniques within CI when interviewing undergrads and children
And found the highest recall was when they used report everything and mental reinstatement rather than just one individual techniques p

137
Q

How is quality vs quantity a limitation of CI

A

It is meant to enhance the the quantity of info without comprising the quality but this wasn’t true

Kohnken et al 1999 found al there was a 61% increase incorrect information despite an 81% the amount of info showing that CI isn’t accurate

139
Q

How is difficulties in establishing the effectiveness of CI a limitation

A

Kennel and wag staff 1996 found police officers don’t use all the components of CI they only use some
Report everything and reinstate context this makes it Differcult to judge how effective it is

140
Q

How is problem of using CI in practice a limitation

A

Kebbell and wag staff 1996 they found that many police officers stated using CI Interview takes a longer time than avaliable

It requires special training which is more than police forces are willing to provide

141
Q

What was hodges and Patterson study and how does it support the 3 types of ltm

A

They studied patients with Alzheimer’s disease and found some could form episodic memories but not semantic ones which shows them are separate and that they maybe localised in the brain.

142
Q

Why is the research into interference being artificial a weakness

A

As the studies are lab based and the findings don’t relate to everyday uses of memory as nonsense syllables are learnt

People are also aware of what’s occuring so may lack in motivation do to the test properly so the result may appear stronger than they actually should be

It’s weakness as it shows the studies like in ecological validity

143
Q

How does interference only explaining some situations of forgetting a limitation of the study

A

It only occurs in special situations when two memories are similar

As a result it can be considered as quite an unimportant explanation for everyday forgetting

Anderson stated that although it has s role in forgetting,it’s unclear how much of it can be attributed to forgetting

Weakness as it dosent play a significant role in forgetting therefore is viewed as unimportant

144
Q

What is induced fit theory

A

That an enzyme molecule will change its shape slightly to fit more closely around a substrate

And only a specially shaped substrate will cause the enzyme to change correctly

145
Q

State how STM is encoded

A

It’s encoded acoustically

146
Q

State how Ltm is encoded

A

It’s encoded semantically

Psychology (7 decks)

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