regeneration paper 2 Flashcards
4A.1b There are differences in economic activity (employment data and output data) and this is reflected through variation in social factors, (health, life expectancy and levels of education.)
Reading is a more economically successful place than Middlesbrough.
In 2015, the average hourly pay for a male worker in Middlesbrough was £12.50, and in full time employment a worker could expect to earn £532 a week.
In Reading it’s £14.80 and £605.
In terms of type of work:
66% of people in Reading are economically active, compared with 54% in Middlesbrough, where part time employment (which pays less) is also more common.
GVA is also very different for the two areas: £34,000 per person in Reading, and £17,000 in Middlesbrough
Gross Value Added (GVA) is a measure of economic output; it’s the value of goods and services produced per person.
Reasons for these Economic Differences: (education and pay)
In 2014, 22.5% of people in Middlesbrough had no educational qualifications, versus 11.5% in Reading
In 2014, 19% had a University level qualification in Middlesbrough, but 43% in Reading
Middlesbrough’s manual workers earn about £350 a week, whereas Reading’s professional ear about £700
Temporary, low paid and ‘zero-hours contract’ work is more common in Middlesbrough, meaning people have lower job and income security.
There is a difference in life expectancy: a male born in 2014 in Middlesbrough - 77, the same male born in 2014 in Reading - 81
Health (measured by the percentage of long term sick and disabled) is very high in Middlesbrough (7%) compared to Reading. (3%)
4A.2b Reasons for changes in a place might be explained by physical factors, accessibility and connectedness, historical development and the role of local and national planning.
Physical
Location: proximity to large cities and core economic zones.
Environment: places vary in attractiveness.
Technology: lifts allowing high rise, and motor vehicles, facilitating urban sprawl and counter-urbanisation. Fibre optic cables and broadband are shifting traditional ‘landscapes’ and relationships.
Accessibility, connectedness
Access to other places - by road (especially motorways), rail and air.
Connections help competition for investment and visitors.
Historical Development
post-production era: once key factors in many places: primary production (agriculture, farming, fishing) and manufacturing have stopped being so.
Competition for the optimum site for functions: commercial, retail, residential, infrastructure. Land values and intensity of use historically increased towards the Central Business District (CBD) or core of a village (church, marketplace) because access for most people pre-motor age was best here.
Changes in consumer trends:
in retailing, from corner ship to supermarket to online shopping
in house types: increased demand for single homes due to demographic and cultural trends.
role of big businesses and TNCs in shaping consumer demand, and hence the character of places (cloned shopping malls)
Increased affluence has increased leisure and tourism functions, so many houses and buildings have been converted, such as bars, B&Bs or second homes.
Historic Buildings (ex-warehouses, canals, old market squares) can be a physical asset for places seeking regeneration. Large areas of derelict buildings and the legacy of toxic waste from manufacturing can be a deterrent.
Role of planning by government and other stakeholders
National government policies on restructuring the UK economy, trying to equalise the benefits and reduce the negative externalities of changes. The 1990s policy of increasing student numbers so that 50% of children could go onto higher education.
A plan-led system with tight control over developments, zoning and segregating land uses began from 1948. Green belts introduced and new and expanded towns were developed to relieve population pressure from larger cities. The policy of state funded council housing, industry and transport shifted from the 1980s towards privatisation and greater partnerships with private investors and speculators.
Conservation area policies limit new developments and encourage conversions rather than renewal schemes. National interests may override local ones, for example with HS2 and fracking. Larger schemes must have an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Central government intervention in local places started to change in the late twentieth to early 21st century when the policy of ‘localism’ and individuality began.
Local planning centres on elected parish and city councils, and on a few larger cities. There has been an increased input into local decisions through Local Area Plans and stakeholder meetings. The cumbersome planning process was streamlined in 2013, although criticised for fast-tracking decisions without full consultation.
Image or the perception of a place may affect whether a place needs changing, or is able to change.
BLACKHEATH VS KIDBROOKE
4A.2c Change can be measured using employment trends, demographic changes, land-use changes, and levels of deprivation (income deprivation, employment deprivation, health deprivation, crime, quality of the living environment, abandoned and derelict land)
Change can be measured using employment trends, demographic change and changes to deprivation levels. Population growth or decline is a key indicator of how economically successful places are.
The Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) attempts to quantify deprivation in England. seven data domains which are weighted towards income and employment. The IMD is a very fine grained index because it spits England into nearly 33,000 small areas with abut 1500 people each. Income (large weight) Employment (large weight) Education (medium) Health (medium) Crime (less) Barriers to housing and services (less) Living environment (less)
the very lowest levels of deprivation tend to be found in rural areas and commuter belt towns and villages in the South and South East.)
All large towns and cities have some degree of deprivation
4A.3a Regional and national influences have shaped the characteristic of your chosen place. These places can be represented in a variety of different forms, giving contrasting images to those presented more formally and statistically. How the lives of students and those of others are affected by this continuity and change, both real and imagined.
Regional Influences on Kidbrooke
London’s greenbelt has made Reading a nearby alternative where development is allowed.
Migrants are attracted to Reading, being close to London and close to their UK entry point.
Within the M4 corridor, it is the preferred location for hi-tech industry in the UK.
Many people live in the area, but commute to London.
National Influences on Kidbrooke
High transport spending in the South and South East has provided connections: the M4, Heathrow airport, the M40 and the M3.
Regional Influences of Blackheath
Iron ore deposits, which were in part the origin of Middlesbrough’s industrial growth, were exhausted decades ago.
There are poor road connections to nearby cities such as Leeds and Newcastle, and very poor rail connections.
It is close to the North York Moors National Park, but not close enough to benefit from tourism.
National Influences on Blackheath
It is located in a ‘cut-off’ corner of the North East, too far east of the A1 trunk road, and east coast mainline railway.
Students, other young workers and migrants are affected by these images and perceptions:
Young people may feel they want to leave a place with a poor image. People are attracted to places with positive images.
There are likely to be more job opportunities in places with attractive images, because companies, like people, are attracted to them.
4A.3c Consideration of the way in which economic and social changes in your chosen places have influenced people’s identity. (A: Attitudes on changes range from cultural erosion to enrichment)
All places have an image that they project and this shapes people perceptions of the place as either positive or negative. This image can also have an effect on the people in the place.
Their identity may be affected if they perceive they are living in an area that has a positive or negative image.
Reading could be perceived as a more modern, busy, and a place where there is lots to do.
Middlesbrough could be perceived as more industrial and less attractive.
Students, other young workers and migrants are affected by these images and perceptions:
Young people may feel they want to leave a place with a poor image.
People are attracted to places with positive images
There are likely to be more job opportunities in places with attractive images, because companies, like people, are attracted to them.
Since 2010, the UK Government has attempted to measure ‘national wellbeing’ by conducting a survey asking people about how they feel about their lives.
Identity refers to people’s feelings and perceptions, and their shared beliefs, traditions and ways of life. It can create a sense of community and feeling part of a wider group of similar people.
4A.7a Infrastructure investment (high speed rail, airport development) in order to maintain growth and improve accessibility to regenerate regions. (P: national governments facilitate regeneration, often in partnership with charities and developers)
Regeneration is a local process because only small areas are regenerated.
However, much of the funding comes from national government (and the EU) in the form of grants.
Regeneration Policy since 1950:
1950-80 - Regional Policy and New Towns
Grants were directed at depressed regions, supported by new road development and the movement of government jobs out of London into the regions. New towns were built as inner city slums were cleared.
1980-2000 - Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) and Single Reneration Budget (SRB)
Focus on inner-city regeneration in deindustrialised areas in northern cities and London, led by quangos which were free from local council control and many normal planning regulations.
A quango (quasi-autonomous governmental organisation) is an organisation given the power to do a task that might be expected to be done by the government. They are government funded, but act independently.
Post-2010 - Local Enterprise Partnerships (LEPs)
A much more local policy, focused on regeneration and job creation in specific small areas. There were about 40 LEPs in England in 2015.
Regeneration has attempted to reduce the UKs north-south divide from 1950s
National Infrastructure Investment
- tried to reduce the divide by improving transport accessibility in order to improve economic growth.
The UK motorway network, begun in the 1950s, has attempted to reduce road travel times between regions.
The High Speed Rail network between London, Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds is a planned attempt to connect the poorer regions to the economic core in London and the South East.
Since the 1960s, there has been considerable investment in regional airports like Newcastle, Manchester and Glasgow.
4A.7b Rate and type of development (planning laws, house building targets, housing affordability, permission for ‘fracking’) affecting economic regeneration of both rural and urban regions. (A: Government actions may prioritise national over local needs and opinions.)
The UK has a number of planning policies that are important in the context of regeneration:
- Greenbelt land, which surrounds most larger cities, cannot be built on. It is protected green space, usually farmland.
- Conservation areas like National Parks have strict planning regulations that limit the development of all but small-scale residential and commercial schemes.
- Planning permission is often dependent on a scheme including ‘planning gain’ in other words a scheme for new private homes might be given permission if it includes a certain percentage of affordable homes or improvements to existing roads or parks, paid for by the developer.
- Planning laws allow for developments that are ‘in the national interest’ like fracking for gas, or quarrying, or new road building, even when these would not normally be allowed.
- National house-building targets set at 240,000 new homes per year in 2007 and revised to 200,000 per year for 2010-2015 (these targets are never met.)
UK has shortage of homes and very high house prices. Demand for housing is very high in London, the South-East and East of England so house prices here are high - and in many locations unaffordable for most people. (The average house price in London is more than £450,000, and is about £300,000 in the South-East.)
The housing shortage in the UK means:
There was a shortage of about 500,000 new homes by 2016.
240,000 homes need to be built each year to meet current demand.
For the last ten years, only 100,000-150,000 new homes have been built each year.
However, planning laws like greenbelt policy make releasing new land for housing very hard to achieve. In addition, most demand is actually in the South and East, the areas with the least capacity to find new land for housing. Lack of ability to build new housing can prevent economic development and regeneration by limiting the opportunities for new people to move into an area.
4A.7c UK government decisions about international migration and the deregulation of capital markets (enabling foreign investment in prime London real estate) have significant impacts on the potential for growth and both direct and indirect investment. (P: Government may create open or closed doors policies)
It could be argued that other government policies have contributed to housing shortages:
- Immigration: large-scale immigration from the EU, esp since 2004, contributed to increasing the UK population from 59 million in 2001 to 63 million by 2011. An open-door immigration may have economic benefits but it also creates demand for new houses.
- Deregulation: the UK is very open to foreign investment, including allowing foreign people and companies to buy property. In 2016, the Guardian estimated that 40,000 London properties were owned by offshore tax havens. These properties may not be lived in, or even rented.
- Second homes and holiday homes: there are few restrictions in the UK on people buying houses to rent out, e.g. as a holiday let or buying a second home. In some rural areas a large percentage of houses may not be available to local people.
All of the factors above tend to reduce housing supply and increase prices of other homes. Longer term, there is a risk that very high house prices will prevent investment in some locations. UK-based or foreign investors could be put off from investing in areas were housing for workers could be very expensive.
4A.8a Local governments compete to create sympathetic business environments with local plans designating areas for development for a range of domestic and foreign investors (Science Parks). (A: the actions of local authorities will affect their success)
Most planning decisions are made by councils at local level. they draw up Unitary Development Plans, which identify:
areas for new housing, new roads and other major infrastructure, areas for commercial development, i.e. factories, offices and retail
they aim to create environments that are attractive to people and businesses (UK-based or foreign investors) and so create a successful place. This means planning has to provide a range of spaces such as: retail parks, shopping centres, business parks for office functions, and industrial parks for manufacturing and distribution
a key goal is to attract high-value quaternary industry in fields such as ICT, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, nanotechnology, 3D printing and space research.
Science parks are a key planning mechanism to deliver this. They are industrial and business parks focussed on the quaternary industry and usually involve at least one university partner. There are over 100 science parks and business incubators (smaller sites, for start-up companies) in the UK, owned by TNCs, universities and local councils. Perhaps not surprisingly, most are in London, the South and South East. they attract domestic and foreign investment.
4A.11bc
The changes that have taken place as a consequence of national and local strategies can be judged using a range of economic, social, demographic and environmental variables in an urban area. (F: future success depends on past decisions)
Different stakeholders (local and national governments, local businesses and residents) will assess success using contrasting criteria; their views will depend on the meaning and lived experiences of an urban place and the impact of change on both the reality and the image of that place.
regeneration is who has it benefitted? Different stakeholder have very different views of this because they will use very different criteria to judge success. Stakeholders are any groups or individuals involved in, or interested in, regeneration. They range from residents, environmentalists and businesses to local councils and planners.
different stakeholders have different desired outcomes from regeneration:
- Local council
Wants: External image is important to attract investment, so landmark buildings and interesting architecture are important, but so are reduced deprivation levels
Measured by: job creation numbers, areas of vacant/derelict land brought back into use, IMD data trends
- Existing residents
Better housing, community facilities and job opportunities plus an improved environment.
Hard-to-measure factors such as ‘community spirit’ may be important.
rising incomes, improved health and life expectancy, increased access to services - Property developers
Motivated by profit, so will maximise sales values and rental values.
Image is important to draw sales.
Profit versus investment ratios
number of investors
increase in land value - Local businesses
Increases local population, especially of wealthier residents to boost trade and profits
rising population, especially the young
hiring rates of new employees - National government
regeneration that fits in with national priorities such as the northern powerhouse (a policy to increase the economic power and significance of northern cities, especially greater manchester) plus reduced dependency on benefits
reduced out-migration
increases in regional output/GVA
When Regeneration is not Successful - BOSCOMBE
Doncaster’s Earth Centre XXXX
Opened in 1999
Built on the 160-hectare former coal mine site of Cadeby Main Colliery near Denaby
The derelict land was reclaimed and an attraction focused on sustainable lifestyles as part of a ‘green theme park’ was built with a grant of £42 million from the Millennium Commission, with National Lottery money
It closed in 2004 due to low visitor numbers
Around 75 employees lost their jobs because it only attracted 37,000 of the 150,000 visitors per year needed to make it viable
Reasons for the failure:
The location was not very accessible, and the area is not very well known for tourism
Local people’s lived experience of the area was coal mining and its heritage, not ecological issues
lived experience refers to people’s feelings about a place, what is important to them and what a place means to them. This is strongly related to a place’s traditions, its community spirit and history
The reality of South Yorkshire is of an industrial and agricultural place, not an environmental or ecological one.
Interpretive centres tend to lack to attractions (rides, etc.) that many families want.
4A.12b. The changes that have taken place as a consequence of
national and local strategies can be judged using a range of
economic, social, demographic and environmental variables in
a rural area. (F: future success depends on past
decisions)
4A.12c. Different stakeholders (local and national governments, local businesses and residents) will assess success using contrasting criteria; their views will depend on the meaning
and lived experiences of a RURAL place and the impact of change on both the reality and the image of that place.
Social measures. How deprived is Cornwall?
There are mostly income, employment, and educationally deprived, 20 neighbourhoods in Cornwall are of the 10% most deprived in England
Areas that are tourist destinations (Padstow) have benefitted economically and socially, meaning they are not deprived. Although there is a pressure on housing due to increase in second homes
4.5 million visitors each year has boosted Cornwall’s economy, allowing for further investment
What are the employment opportunities like NOW in Cornwall?
The seasonality and lack of employment leads to low spending power, limited tax base, and therefore deprivation
Lack of employment opportunties, jobs are seasonal
Whilst tourism has offset job losses in the primary industry, it only employs 25% of people + only 33% of profits stay in Cornwall.
The Eden Project - The Eden Project is a sustainable development in Cornwall with the
aim of attracting tourists and providing employment and economic opportunities for local
Cornish businesses. Built from an abandoned clay pit, the Eden Project has contributed
£700 million in local economic growth and will soon provide renewable geothermal energy
for 7000 local homes.
What were the issues in Cornwall’s economy and how have they changed?
Cornwall has been moving to a post-production countryside. This means there is a focus on tourism and farm-diversification
There has been a decline in most of its primary industries. Farming declined due to low cost of imports, more machinery, and withdrawal of EU subsidies. Fishing declined due to EU quotas and fall in fish stocks.
Aging population, Isolated, Poor transport infrastructure, Connectivity, Post-production countryside, Dependence on tourism/weather, Small towns and villages not built for mass tourism, Major decrease in main economy sector (primary)
Concer over the environmental impacts in Cornwall due to rise in tourism
