health, human rights & intervention paper 2 Flashcards
8A.1c Education is central to economic development (human capital) and to the understanding and assertion of human rights; this view, however, is not universally shared (attitudes to gender equality in education) as both access to education and standards of achievement vary greatly among countries (UNESCO)
Education is crucial to economic development as it increases the value of ‘human capital’ - a.k.a. producing a literate, numerate, enterprising and skilled workforce.
Education mainly comes from schooling (primary, secondary, university) but continues during employment (training)
Education gives a better job and higher wages -> material benefits -> quality of life
The relationship between years in education and income:
A low number of years in education results in a poorly educated, unskilled workforce with low earning capacity, so incomes remain low. High incomes mean governments have the taxes to invest in education (investing in future human capital, which in turn increases future income.
Norway: 2013 Expected years in education - 17.6
Income per person $70,600 (2016)
Niger: 5.4 years, $360
Human rights are the rights people are entitled to simply for being human: they often include freedom, equality, the right to a fair trial, the right to education and a certain standard of living.
It informs people about personal health, diet and hygiene
It allows people to understand their human rights, so they are more likely assert them when they’re undermined.
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, is part of the UN’s International Bill of Human Rights, signed by 163 countries, recognises the right to free primary education.
However, education varies because of poverty, and gender inequality. (meaning this view is not universally shared)
UNESCO has found that education is still inaccessible to over 60 million children of primary school age. 32 million from Sub-Saharan Africa. 20 million - Central Asia, East Asia and the Pacific.
poverty:
Since 1970, the highest level of education achievement has improved dramatically in Africa, but, even in 2020, 50% of 20-24 year olds are expected to leave education at the end of primary school, and fewer than 10% will have had any post-secondary education.
In Niger, world’s poorest countries, only 8% of children reached Grade 4 (where basic literacy and numeracy skills are taught) and learnt the basic skills in 2013-14. Standard of achievement also varies, since in Niger 51% of children reached Grade 4, but did not learn the basic skills.
gender inequality:
In low-income Sub-Saharan Africa, fewer girls than boys finish both primary and secondary school because education often costs money and boys are prioritised. Girls are also traditionally seen as working in the home. 54% of the world’s non-schooled population are girls.
Inequality is also clear in the Middle East and North Africa, especially in primary school: poverty plays a role but boys tend to be valued more than girls for religious and cultural reasons (so more of them finish school) = 93% boys, 87% girls
South Asia is a poor region, but education is valued highly and girls get more schooling than boys = 92% boys, 94% girls (78% and 82% for secondary)
Latin America equal for primary (99) but 76% male and 81% female for secondary.
8A.2a There are considerable variations in health and life expectancy across the developing world that are explained by differential access to basic needs, such as food, water supply and sanitation, which impact particularly on levels of infant and maternal mortality.
Health is important for human development, since poor health can have the following consequences for development:
Childhood diseases can lead to stunting and poor cognitive development, affecting education later in life.
Diseases such as malaria and HIV/Aids reduce the capacity to work, and therefore earning capacity.
Family members may have to spend long periods looking after ill relatives (rather than working), because health services are poor
Medical costs use up income that could be spend on food, education and housing.
the democratic republic of the Congo is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of natural resources, however:
most of the population lives in a state of moderate to severe food insecurity, and 40% of children under 5 suffer from chronic malnutrition
the water supply for 47.6% of the population is ‘unimproved’
8A.2b Variations in health and life expectancy in the developed world are largely a function of differences in lifestyles, levels of deprivation and the availability, cost and effectiveness of medical care.
The differences in life expectancy within the developed world are not as large as in the developing world, but are still significant. a Japanese person can expect to live 13 years longer than an average Russian.
Lifestyle: inactive lifestyles, combined with high fat/sugar diets, have contributed to 31% of adults in the UAE and 36% in the USA being obese, which leads to high levels of diabetes and heart disease, which lowers life expectancy. Alcoholism is a serious problem in Russia, especially among men.
Diet: Japanese and South Korean diets contain more fish, vegetables and rice than Western diets, which are high in meat protein, fat and sugar. Better diet may lead to lower levels of cancer, heart disease and skeletal/joint problems such as osteoporosis and arthritis.
Deprivation: about 40% of people in Bulgaria are at risk from poverty, despite its EU membership
Medical care: some countries, such as the UK, provide free healthcare for all (the NHS), which increases life expectancy. In the USA most people need expensive health insurance policies to cover health costs, which many cannot afford. Costs are greater when funded through private insurance and the private sector (economies of scale)
The USA has the highest health spending per capita in the world, yet it has an infant mortality rate of 5.97 per 1000, only the 38th lowest.
In Russia and Bulgaria, medical care is much less modern than in other developed countries and therefore less effective.
8A.4b The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) was drafted by the nations of the Council of Europe to help prevent conflict and integrated into the UK by the Human Rights Act of 1998; the ECHR remains controversial as some see it as an erosion of national sovereignty.
In Europe there is a further human rights treaty called the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). This:
was written by the Council of Europe and adopted by its 47 member states. it established the European Court of Human Rights to uphold the ECHR and bring people or organisations abusing human rights to trial and justice.
The ECHR was specifically set up to prevent conflict in Europe and the sort of atrocities committed during the World Wars. It is different to the UDHR, but they have similar aims and refer to similar rights.
In the UK, the Human Rights Act 1998 took the rights enshrined in the ECHR and made them part of UK law. This makes it easier for citizens to have their human rights upheld in the UK, rather than having to take the UK government to court at the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.
The UDHR and ECHR are controversial to some people because of their impact on sovereignty. (idea that a country’s government determines the laws and policies in that country, and no higher authority has supreme power)
By signing international human rights treaties, sovereign states could be seen to be handing authority on human rights issues to a higher legal body (UN or Council of Europe)
In the case of the ECHR, the European Council of Human Rights in Strasbourg has a higher legal power to make judgements than national courts.
Some have criticised the concept of ‘human rights’ as being Western, put into place after WW2 by European and North American politicians and thinkers.
They argue that this Western concept of human rights does not apply easily to Islamic or Asian cultures, which have different histories and traditions.
Are certain human rights universal?
Different cultures may take a different view of gender equality, or treat some crimes more/less seriously than other cultures.
8A.5b Some superpowers and emerging powers have transitioned to more democratic governments, but the degree of democratic freedom varies (comparison of authoritarian and democratic system); the protection of human rights and freedom of speech varies.
Freedom in the World Index = ranks countries as ‘free’, ‘partly free’ and ‘not free’
Free: North America, Europe, much of South America, Australia, southern Africa, Mongolia and india
Partly Free: some Eastern European countries, South-east Asia, south-eastern Africa, western Africa, Central America, some of south Asia and South America
Not Free: most of Africa, most of Asia
Democracy is a key aspect of human rights. A democratic political system allows people to vote out of office a government that is doing a bad job. democracy is surprisingly rare. 163 countries into four groups:
1. full democracy -> civil liberties and political freedoms fully respected and protected (19 countries: Norway, Canada, UK)
- flawed democracy -> elections are fair and civil liberties are protected, but there are problems, e.g. the media may not be free (57 countries: South Korea, South Africa, USA, India)
- hybrid regimes -> elections are not free and fair, the legal system is not independent of the government and corruption is widespread (38 countries: Turkey, Bangladesh)
- authoritarian regimes -> dictatorship, or systems where elections are meaningless; civil liberty abuses are common and the legal system is not independent. Media censored (52 countries: Russia, China, Saudi Arabia)
In hybrid and authoritarian countries freedom of speech is usually not respected at all. Freedom of speech is the right to express opinions without fear of persecution, censorship or retaliation: in some democracies it is fiercely protected, but there are often some restrictions to prevent incitement of violence or hate speech.
There has been some movement by emerging countries towards democracy, for instance South Korea transitioned to democracy in 1987, Chile in 1989 and Brazil in 1985. Other emerging countries, such as China and Turkey, have not moved this way.
India = FLAWED DEMOCRACY
Religious freedom: Despite religious freedom, religious violence and intolerance is common between Hindu, Muslim and Sikh groups.
Freedom of speech: Generally upheld: anti-government and single-issue protests are common, but so is police violence.
Political freedom: There are about 2,000 political parties in India, and its hotly contested elections are the largest democratic ones in the world.
Freedom of the press: There are numerous, privately owned media organisations that have reduced the influence of the government.
However, there are human rights problems in India related to a lack of LGBT rights, a lack of rights amongst Muslim women, and the caste system. This is a hereditary form of social hierarchy, which limits lower caste groups in terms of types of jobs they can have, and therefore their income. It has weakened, but lower caste groups are still subject to abuse.
China = authoritarian
Religious freedom: Christianity is barely tolerated, and Communist party members must be atheist. Buddhism and Islam are suppressed - hundred of thousands of native Uighur Muslims are locked up in camps.
Freedom of speech: ‘Subversion of state power’ is used to crack down on dissenting voices; the internet is censored.
Political freedom: The Chinese Communist Party is, in practice, the only political party that exists.
Freedom of the press: Not free. Media are monitored by the Communist Party and subject to government direction.
8A.5c Levels of political corruption vary and can be measured (Index of Corruption); high levels of corruption are a threat to human rights as the rule of law can be subverted.
Human rights depend on having people in power who are prepared to protect them.
Perhaps the most important aspect of this is having an independent judiciary system (courts, may even judge new laws to be illegal) that is not interfered with by politicians and cannot be ‘bought’ by people with power and money. An independent judiciary is a key principle of a democratic government.
The judiciary is undermined by corruption (for private benefit) because this can subvert the rule of law.
Judges can be bribed to dismiss legitimate human rights abuse cases, perhaps by wealthy business owners or TNCs
The appointment of judges can be influenced by politicians, rather than them being appointed independently
Corrupt politicians can steal government money, or foreign aid, so that it cannot be used as intended to improve human rights.
The overall impact of corruption is to create an untouchable group of powerful, wealthy people supported by a corrupt judicial system. Ordinary people are then left with no means of having their human rights upheld, so human rights abuses are widespread. Inevitably, countries with high levels of corruption (as measured by indices such Corruption Perception Index (CPI)) are those with the worst track records on human rights.
8A.7a There is a wide range of geopolitical interventions to address development and human rights issues: development aid, trade embargoes, military aid, direct and indirect military action.
Intervention is an action taken by one or more sovereign states, within the territory of another, in order to change the political and social conditions in that place.
Interventions take a variety of forms, some of which are high risk because they involve the use of force.
Development Aid
Money, technical help or physical supplies (equipment, food and medicine) provided from one country to another, often involving IGOs such as the UN and/or NGOs
Aid aims to improve quality of life by meeting basic needs (food, clean water, education and healthcare)
Trade Embargoes
Otherwise known as economic sanctions, they prevent a country from undertaking international trade in the normal way
By preventing exports, or banning imports, pressure is placed on the leaders of a sovereign state to change policy because their economy suffers.
Military Aid
Money provided from one sovereign state to another to buy military equipment
Indirect Military Action
Military equipment, or military advisers, are provided from one sovereign state to another. (or another military group within it)
This is usually done in support of one side in a civil conflict.
Direct Military Action
Armed forces from one sovereign state engaging in conflict in another sovereign state
This is often done as part of a coalition, i.e. several countries acting collectively.
8A.10a Measurements of success compromise a wide range of variables, including improvements in health, life expectancy, education levels, gender equality, freedom of speech and successful management of refugees, as well as increases in GDP per capita.
Interventions in sovereign states, whether humanitarian, military or the use of development aid, should improve the lives of people in a measurable way.
Some common measures are:
Infant mortality (deaths before age 1, per 1,000 live births)
Responds rapidly to changes in sanitation and access to basic health and nutrition
Correlates strongly with the quality of governance in a state
but…
Recording is often poor in isolated rural areas
Improvements in health systems sometimes lead to an increase in recorded infant mortality
Life expectancy (average, years from birth)
Widely understood, comparable measure
Relatively easy to calculate from existing records
but…
Responds relatively slowly to improving social conditions
National average masks wide regional, local and ethnicity variations
GDP per capita (average income per person)
Widely used, easy-to-understand measure of average wealth
Simple to calculate and update
but…
Does not indicate income distribution or income equality
Does not take into account the cost of living
Single indicators can indicate success, however an index (combines single measures into one -> increases data range and reduces impact of anomalies) is often a better method. e.g.
Human Development Index (HDI): combining per capita income. life expectancy and average years in school
Gender Inequality Index (GII): combining maternal mortality, women’s participation in higher education, parliament & workforce
Improvements in these indices show relatively widespread progress in human well-being, the position of women and human rights.
Many interventions involve the management of refugees fleeing conflict either internally or internationally. The extent to which refugees are treated humanely is important. They should be:
provided with shelter, food, water and healthcare
reunited with other family members
in time, supported to return to their homes or permanently resettled as asylum seekers
Surprisingly, Uganda is a model of refugee management. In 2018, there were around 600,000 refugees and asylum seekers in Uganda from 13 other African countries. Many are from South Sudan, Somalia and the DRC. Uganda’s progressive legal system allows:
allows refugees to work, to support their families
gives them access to social services such as healthcare and education
allows freedom of movement within Uganda
in many cases provides refugee families with land to farm
These policies contrast starkly with those in many Western countries, such as the UK, which prohibit some of these freedoms.
8A.10b For some governments and IGOs, the introduction of democratic institutions is deemed important and freedom of expression is seen as central to the development of democratic and capitalist societies.
Western governments, especially the USA (and EU countries and IGOs such as the UN) see the promotion of democracy and freedom of expression as a key outcome of intervention.
Most countries that carry out interventions are Western, capitalist democracies. It is perhaps not surprising that these countries equate freedom and democracy with success.
Freedom and democracy are less common than might be expected:
there is very little tradition of freedom, democratic elections or gender equality in the Middle East
60 years ago, most African countries were colonies; democracy has struggled to take root there
Western countries could be criticised for forcing their own economic and political model on developing and emerging countries, when ‘success’ might actually be measured in terms of rising incomes, improving life expectancy and increasing participation in education.
In 2015, a survey by Pew Research Global found that only 53% of people in Pakistan and 52% in Turkey agreed that people should be able to criticise the government’s policies. In the USA and UK, the figures were 95% and 94%. Support for complete freedom of speech is not universal.
8A.10c For other countries, success is measured in terms of economic growth, with less attention to holistic development (human well-being) or human rights and the development of democratic institutions.
In some countries, the success of foreign aid, military interventions to end conflict and trade embargoes or sanctions is measured by subsequent economic growth rather than an improvement in human rights or a growth in democracy. The concept of holistic development (in all aspects of quality of life) where many aspects of human well-being are improved at the same time, is seen as less important than improving wealth and incomes.
Holistic development is a combination of economic growth, human rights and democratic institutions.
In some ways, this makes sense:
In developed countries, democracy and human rights are relatively new, having developed only in the last 200 years: they were largely absent as today’s developed countries industrialised and became wealthy
In developing countries, without government-funded welfare systems people have to pay for education, healthcare and clean water: rising incomes make this possible far more than the right to vote
Families in developing countries often have to look after elderly relatives, and income is needed for this when there aren’t any government pensions.
On the other hand, ignoring the need for human rights and democratic institutions as part of the development process risks authoritarian rule, poor governance and corruption, and possibly even persecution of minority groups. There are examples of countries that have transitioned to democracy as they have developed economically such as Taiwan (1996), South Korea (1987), and Ecuador (1979) which suggests that growing wealth can promote democracy and freedom.
8A.12a The recent history of military interventions, both direct and indirect, suggest that there are significant costs, including loss of sovereignty and human rights and contrasts between short-term gains with long-term costs.
There have been many direct and indirect military interventions in recent history. UN peacekeepers have been involved in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) since 1999, intervening in the Second Congo War. The war is a fight between DRC government forces under President Laurent Kabila and various rebel groups under the RCD (Rally for Congolese Democracy) flag. At stake is control of the DRC and its vast mineral wealth - including conflict minerals such as gold, diamond (high value minerals and ores, that have caused war as opposite groups fight to control mining and trade. It has an ethnic dimension, and has spilled over into Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.
In 2017, there were 18,300 UN peacekeepers in DRC. More than 30 member states have contributed troops. total cost is over $9 billion.
UN Action
Gains
The situation may have been worse without UN involvement
The UN may have prevented wider, direct involvement by other countries, e.g. a World War in Africa
The UN has collected evidence that may lead to war crimes trials
Humanitarian help and aid has been provided by the UN, protected by peacekeepers
Costs
Despite 20 years of UN action, in 2018 the war was still raging in the Ituri and Kivu regions
DRC is more dependent than ever on warlord-controlled conflict minerals
Over 5 million dead, including 200 UN peacekeepers
GDP per capita $458
Shocking war crimes, involving child soldiers and sexual violence, have been widespread
The USA’s War on Terror since 2001
Military actions around the world against Islamic terrorists (Al Qaeda, Taliban, IS) in response to the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York.
Views as demonising Muslims
Turned some Muslims in Western countries into radical extremists
Contributed to the rise of IS - as an extremist response to the ‘War on Terror’
Made Middle Eastern countries take sides for or against the USA
UK and France in Libya, 2011
An air force bombing campaign in support of rebel forces fighting the government forces of Colonel Gaddafi. (In the context of the 2011 Arab Spring, a popular uprising against military dictatorships in North Africa (Libya, Tunisia, Egypt) and the Middle East (Syria, Iran) which led to the overthrow of several governments, but also longer-term conflict in Syria and Libya.)
Disagreement among NATO members over how to act
Disintegration of governance in Libya
Refugee and humanitarian crises in Libya as no effective governance has emerged since 2011
Widespread disregard for human rights
Any military intervention, either by the UN, a coalition of countries or an individual country inevitably means the sovereignty of the country where the intervention takes place is severely eroded. This means the ‘bar’ for intervention is high.
In some cases, intervention may make a bad human rights situation worse. Failed intervention risks prolonging conflict, with greater numbers of deaths, injuries and human rights abuse. The West’s failure to create a situation where a stable, unified, democratic post-intervention government could exist in Somalia, Libya, Iraq or Afghanistan begs the very difficult question as to whether these countries would have been better off without Western intervention.
8A.12b Other non-military interventions may have a stronger record of improving both human rights and development (Ivory Coast, 2011)
France intervened in the 2011 Second Ivorian Civil War, in order to end a brutal conflict between military supporters of Alassane Ouattara (the democratically elected president) and Laurent Gbagbo (loser of the 2010 presidential election). French special forces helped to arrest Gbagbo and restore Outtara to power. Subsequently, Cote d’Ivoire has been relatively stable and Ouattara was re-elected president in 2015.
8A.12c Lack of action also has global consequences which may impact negatively on progress in environmental, political and social development (human well-being and human rights)
The costs of the Syrian Civil War that began in 2011 have been huge:
Between 350,000 and 500,000 deaths up to 2018
7.6 million people internally displaced within Syria
5.1 million international refugees
A refugee crisis, which has caused internal political division within the EU
The rise of Islamic State within Syria and beyond
Tensions between Russia, Turkey, the EU and USA in terms of how to respond
The use of chemical weapons by President Assad’s forces
Widespread destruction of ancient, globally significant heritage sites such as Aleppo and Palmyra
Environmental pollution caused by destroyed water and sewage systems, and chemical contamination from weapons, destroyed factories, and military equipment.
The long-term impact on Syrians is considerable:
By 2018, the Syrian economy was about 40% of its size in 2010
Unemployment has risen to over 50%, whereas GDP per capita has collapsed by 50%
HDI has fallen from 0.65 in 2010 to about 0.5 in 2018.
