paper 1 physical questions

Question 1

Assess the reasons why some communities are more vulnerable than others to tectonic hazards. (12)

Answer 1

What is vulnerability?
is the extent to which a community could be damaged or disrupted by a hazard.
The perception of risk and vulnerability varies from place to place consequently this means some communities are more vulnerable than others.
1. physical geo and location : tectonic setting of the location which affects the likely magnitude and frequency of the tectonic event. 90% of all tsunami are recorded in the Pacific Ocean making communities in this region more vulnerable.
the more frequent the event the higher the vulnerability to hazards like pyroclastic flows.
highly dense population and isolated rural areas = increased vulnerability.

2. Governance and players (local and national government) play a crucial role in influencing the communities vulnerability. how well run a country is.
   lack of it can impact on how prepared a country is for a hazard and can also negatively impact the response and recovery efforts after the event.
   corruption: if government accept bribes and do unethical things, then vulnerability would increase as money may not be invested into crucial areas such as emergency services.
   e.g Haiti 2010 and china 2008 Sichuan - no donations invested to public
   corrupt government officials often ignored building codes and accepted bribes to allow builders to take shortcuts. The resulting poorly constructed buildings could not withstand the ground shaking and collapsed. china 5k children died
3. level of development - most important factor
   shown by Japan Tohoku 2011 - being a highly developed country, Japan had the financial resources and commitments to prepare for a hazard. 10m high walls, which helped to reduce the loss of life. Many offices and homes were equipped with earthquake emergency kits and an early warning system detected the earthquake one minute in advance - giving people some warning.
   hose more developed are more educated about the risk and this can reduce their vulnerability. emergency drills are regularly practiced in both schools and businesses. In Japan the literacy rate is 99% whereas in Haiti it was around 50% at the time of the disaster.

A variety of reasons are therefore significant in making some communities more vulnerable than others to tectonic hazards. In particular the context of the area and governance can significantly amplify or reduce the vulnerability of communities to tectonic events.

Question 2

Assess the reasons why managing the impacts of tectonic hazards varies in its effectiveness (12)

Answer 2

intro - effective management relies on strong governance from a large national scale to local. however physical factors also play a part, will be harder to manage with a more intense event and different types of hazards.

1. physical factors
   prediction is an essential part of managing most tectonic hazards and can reduce the impacts to a large extent if the population can then be evacuated or in a safe place. can’t predict when and where earthquakes will be so management isn’t as effective here as compared to a tsunami which can give warnings using a tsunami warning system, this means people can successfully evacuate.
   multiple hazard zones e.g in Philippines earthquake and eruption - stress on limited governance to balance management
2. development and economy of country = reduced impacts.
   if a country isn’t well developed and doesn’t have a lot of money then they won’t be able to invest in prediction, protection and planning effectively. Japan aseismic buildings, advanced and widespread insurance, allowing people to recover from disasters. social development - government-run preparations and public education about risk, coping, response and evacuation.
   sophisticated monitoring of volcanoes and, where possible, defences such as tsunami walls. regulated local planning systems, which use land-use zoning and building codes.
3. governance - events linked with corruption can happen. ignored building codes and accepted bribes to allow builders to take shortcuts. The resulting poorly constructed buildings could not withstand the ground shaking and collapsed. china 5k children died
4. population - if the population is large such as in a mega city like Tokyo then efforts to manage the impacts of tectonic hazards will be more difficult because they’ll affect a larger population
   however in smaller communities like in the Philippines managing the impacts of tectonics hazards will be more effective as they can use local/indigenous methods understood by all - eg ASCEND project

conclusion - overall its clear that a range of human and physical factors influence the effectiveness of the impacts of hazard management but economic limitations is a key restrictor of effective management

Question 3

Assess the relative importance of physical factors and processes in explaining the impacts of volcanic eruptions (12)

Answer 3

Physical processes impact on the magnitude and type of volcanic eruption
Volcanoes cause lava flows, pyroclastic flow, ash falls, gas eruptions, and secondary hazards
Hazard profiles are important in understanding hazard impacts
Destructive plate boundaries generate larger magnitude volcanic eruption than constructive or hotspots
Type of lava can be significant e.g. pyroclastic flows St Vincent
Population density can also be a significant factor in explaining the impacts of volcanic eruptions
Impacts can be amplified through poor management or reduced through effective management
Key factor is type of plate margin but these impacts can be amplified by other contextual factors both physical and human

Composite/shield
composite volcano
- Andesitic lava, which is very viscous
- Steep sides as the lava doesn’t flow very far before it solidifies
- Violent eruptions
- Less frequent eruptions
Properties of shield volcano
- Basaltic lava, which is non-acidic and very runny
- Gentle sides, the lava flows for long distances before it solidifies
- Less violent eruptions
- More frequent eruptions

• Primary/secondary hazards
• Developedness of a country

Question 4

Assess the view that the social and economic impacts of earthquakes are mainly the result of their magnitude (12)

Answer 4

briefly define magnitude + what other physical factors can also be important
-magnitude can be hugely impact as can cause such high social + economic impacts e.g Haiti 2010 earthquake had high magnitude of 7 that led to such large impacts…. however the earthquake of China 2008 had a higher magnitude at 7.9 yet had lower impacts indicating that other factors are also important
-Human factors therefore very influential, describe human factors in Haiti that caused its impacts to be so much higher compared to in China where development + resources meant impacts were fewer
-other physical factors are important, e.g. Japan tsunami 2004 was very impactful due to the earthquake creating a secondary tsunami hazard, was also impactful due to the locations of countries effected such as low lying land etc
Overall magnitude is important but human factors very important in influencing the social/economic impacts, magnitude may be more important with environmental impacts

Question 5

Assess the importance of governance in the successful management of tectonic mega disasters (12)

Question 6

Assess the extent to which development affects economic & social impacts of tectonic hazards (12)

Answer 6

intro - development of a country mostly effects economic and social impacts, however other human factors like governance and physical factors like location, population density and type of hazard can affect the intensity of social and economic impacts.
social - deaths, injury and wider health impacts & psychological
economic - the loss of property, businesses, infrastructure and opportunity

1. physical geo and location : tectonic setting of the location which affects the likely magnitude and frequency of the tectonic event. 90% of all tsunami are recorded in the Pacific Ocean making communities in this region more vulnerable.
   the more frequent the event the higher the vulnerability to hazards like pyroclastic flows.
   highly dense population and isolated rural areas = increased vulnerability. more vulnerability = more hazards and impacts happen. more deaths if youre in the centre
2. Governance and players (local and national government) play a crucial role in influencing the communities vulnerability. how well run a country is.
   lack of it can impact on how prepared a country is for a hazard and can also negatively impact the response and recovery efforts after the event.
   corruption: if government accept bribes and do unethical things, then vulnerability would increase as money may not be invested into crucial areas such as emergency services.
   e.g Haiti 2010 and china 2008 Sichuan - no donations invested to public
   corrupt government officials often ignored building codes and accepted bribes to allow builders to take shortcuts. The resulting poorly constructed buildings could not withstand the ground shaking and collapsed. china 5k children died
3. level of development - most important factor
   shown by Japan Tohoku 2011 - being a highly developed country, Japan had the financial resources and commitments to prepare for a hazard. 10m high walls, which helped to reduce the loss of life. Many offices and homes were equipped with earthquake emergency kits and an early warning system detected the earthquake one minute in advance - giving people some warning.
   hose more developed are more educated about the risk and this can reduce their vulnerability. emergency drills are regularly practiced in both schools and businesses. In Japan the literacy rate is 99% whereas in Haiti it was around 50% at the time of the disaster. however economic cost of japan was $3oo billion whereas Haiti was $8 billion. this is because more buildings and valuable property and places in developed Japan so more loss had happened.

A variety of reasons are therefore significant in making some communities more vulnerable than others to tectonic hazards. In particular the context of the area and governance can significantly amplify or reduce the vulnerability of communities to tectonic events.

Question 7

Assess the extent to which disaster occurrence is a result of vulnerability and resilience (12)

Question 8

Assess the extent to which tectonic hazards can be effectively predicted (12)

Answer 8

intro - tectonic hazards can be predicted - knowing when and where a natural hazard will happen
can be forecasted - probability that something might occur in a particular place at a certain time. Less precise than prediction, and provides a percentage change of a hazard occurring (e.g. a 25% of a magnitude 7.0 earthquake in the next 20 years).

predictions - useful on a spatial and temporal scale that can be acted on (evacuation)
Earthquakes - cant be predicted. only forecasted
Only areas at high risk can be identified (risk forecasting), and areas that are likely to suffer severe ground shaking and liquefaction; this can be used for land-use zoning purposes
‘Seismic gaps’, i.e. areas that have not experienced an earthquake for some time and are ‘overdue’ can point to areas of high risk

Volcanic eruptions - can be predicted
monitoring equipment on volcanoes measures changes as magma chambers fill and eruption nears.
Tiltmeters and strain meters record volcanoes ‘bulging’ as magma rises and seismometers record minor earthquakes indicating magma movement
Gas spectrometers analyse gas emissions which point to increased eruption likelihood.
The minimal death toll from volcanic eruptions (despite 60-80 eruptions per year) is due to improved prediction.

Tsunami - can be partly predicted
An earthquake-induced tsunami cannot be predicted. However, seismometers can tell an earthquake has occurred and locate it, then ocean monitoring equipment can detect tsunami in sea, people are then evacuated from coastal areas.

In many developing countries, volcano monitoring and tsunami warning may not be as good as they could be due to cost of technology. Also, its more difficult to reach isolated, rural locations with effective warnings.

Question 9

Asses the importance of different stages in the hazard management cycle (12)

Answer 9

Although all four stages of the hazard management cycle contribute to reducing the risk of a hazard, to a large extent mitigation is the most important in reducing risk.

1. Mitigation - identifies the characteristics of a potential hazard and what can be done to reduce the impacts in the future:
   - building codes and regulation (making sure all infrastructure is up to current regulation standards etc.). e.g. Aseismic Buildings that are strong enough to resist earthquakes, and prevent damage. has deep foundations of stone, and made from rubble, cement concrete roof, reinforced steel corner pillars to provide strength and flexibility
   - land use zoning - preventing people from building: on low-lying coasts. low costs, saves lives. however prevents economic development on some high-value land, e.g. coastal tourism, and requires strict, enforced planning rules.
   - protective defences (tsunami wall) that prevent waves travelling inland. it reduces damage, gives a sense of security but high cost, ugly and restrict use/development at the coast.
   - Lava Diversion - channels, barriers and water cooling used to divert and/or slow lava. has low cost but only works for low VEI basaltic lava, The majority of ‘killer’ volcanoes are not of this type. not always effective..
2. Although it’s arguably not as important as mitigation, response also has a significant impact on the effects of hazards.
   response: immediate action after event. least desirable form of management, because it implies that a disaster has occurred and caused damage to people and property.
   Short-term aid: search and rescue, evacuating people from areas of danger. emergency food, water, shelter.
   Recovery: returning to normal, long term response
   - monetary aid (charities: NGOs etc), emergency shelters, restoring vital services (health care and law enforcement)
   - reconstruction plans to rebuild an area and improve resilience.
   - insurance (compensation) to people to replace losses.
3. Finally, preparation has smaller importance than mitigation and similar to response and recovery.
   Preparation - minimising loss of life and property.
   - Hi-Tech Monitoring (used for prediction)
   monitors volcano behaviour and predict eruptions. (all can be monitored but earthquakes for example can not be predicted and there is rarely much warning time before the hazard event). however its costly, so not all developing world volcanoes are monitored, if predictions (and evacuation) are wrong, people are less lively to believe the next one, does not prevent property damage
   - Community Preparedness and Education = preparation days, education and earthquake kit (water, food, battery powered radio, blankets) kept in a safe place at home to be used in days after an earthquake. has low cost, often implemented by NGOs, can save lives through small actions but does not prevent property damage and harder to do in isolated rural areas

conclusion?

Question 10

Assess the success of strategies to modify tectonic hazards (mitigation) (12)

Answer 10

mitigation before the hazard strikes - most desirable management. it is reducing the impacts of the hazard by reducing areal extent and magnitude effect.
relies on complex technology and planning so developing and emerging countries are less likely to have access to it.

land use zoning is when there are regulations and rules on where to build. no building on low lying areas, areas that are high risk of ground shaking and soil liquefaction and areas at risk of volcanoes.
this is a good strategy as it it low cost, and saves lives of people by refraining building work on unsafe areas. however, it does prevent economic development of high value land e.g coastal tourism so can slow the economy. also strict enforced planning rules are required.

aseismic building are a way to mitigate hazards impact. they are strong enough to resist earthquake magnitude and prevent further social and economic damage. they include cross bracing, hollow bricks, cement concrete roofs and steel pillars for strength and flexibility of the building. Japan has these so this reduced the death toll of 16,000 being higher. Again, they are less likely to be used in developing countries because of the cost.
tsunami defences like sea walls and breakwater prevent waves from travelling inwards. this reduced damage and gives a sense of security to public. however people can see them as ugly and they can have a very high cost, they restrict the development of the coast so cannot be as successful.

lava diversion - only can be used for volcanoes so less successful as it doesnt work on earthquakes. it uses channels and water cooling to slow the lava to divert the harm. luckily it has a low cost so developing countries can use it. however it only works for low VEI basaltic volcanoes and majority of killer volcanoes are not this type, so it is not very effective as the other strategies.

to conclude, the best strategies to mitigate hazards would be land use zoning as it caters to all the hazards, saving lives and also preventing property and economic damage. this lowers the social and economic costs of the hazard.

Question 11

Assess the success of strategies to modify vulnerability & resilience to tectonic hazards (adaptation) (12)

Answer 11

modifying vulnerablity & resilence before teh hazard means to get people out of the way and to also help them cope with the impacts by building resilience.

hi tech scientific monitoring of volcanoes is used to predict eruptions and monitor behaviour, this is effective as it gives people time to evacuate and saves more lives. however it is coslty so not all developing world volcanoes are monitored. also if predictions are false, people are less likelt to believe the next one.

community preparedness and education e.g drills and earthwauek kits are low cost and implemented by NGOs, they save lives in a small action. howevr it doesn’t prevent property damage and its harder to do in isolated rural areas.

adaption means to move out of harms way and relocating to a safe area. thid saves both lives and property, but it affects and distupts peopels traditions and homes.

Question 12

Assess the success of strategies to modify the loss of tectonic hazards (response & recovery) (12)

Question 13

Evaluate the view that coastal landscape changes are increasing mainly due to rising sea levels (20)

Question 14

Evaluate the extent to which erosion is responsible for the formation of distinctive coastal landforms (20)

Answer 14

intro - formed by different processes including geology, erosion, deposition, transportation and sub aerial.
attrition - rocks that the sea is carrying knock against each other. They break apart to become smaller and more rounded.
abrasion - pebbles grind along cliff base like sandpaper, over time the rock becomes smooth.
solution - sea water dissolves certain types of rocks. chalk and limestone cliffs (soft rock) are prone to this type of erosion.
hydraulic action - waves smash against the cliff. Air becomes trapped and compressed into cracks in the rock with force, rock breaks

1. erosion is when rock is broken down by attrition, abrasion, solution & hydraulic action. it forms cave, arch, stack stump landscape e.g. Old Harry Rocks, erosion has a smaller place in forming landscapes than geology.
   a cave is formed from attrition when rocks hit the base of cliff making a crack, this crack widens by abrasion and hydraulic action, water is forced inside making it bigger forming a cave and then further erosion causes an arch. arch eroded by abrasion and also weathering at the top causing a stack to be formed which is eroded into a stump.
   deposition also creates landforms by longshore drift, a beach is formed when constructive waves swash is stronger than its backwash. spits are also formed when wind and L.D transport and deposit sediment across the coast, a change in wind direction can cause a recurved spit to be formed. overall the processes of erosion and deposition have a somewhat equal position in forming coastal landforms.
2. however to a larger extent, GEOLOGY more responsible for forming landscapes. geology includes shape, structure and type of rock. hard rock granite harder to erode, soft rock chalk easier to erode and make landforms.
   more joints and faults /9lines and cracks faster erosion ate as there are more weak points for erosion to target. strata in the rick helps erosion happen faster.
   geology influences sub aerial processes e.g bio and mechanical weathering happen faster if plants grow out of or water freezes inside a softer rock like chalk. also increases rate of mass movement e.g unconsolidated sediment an soft rock will weaken by rain and even dissolves cause rapid sediment flow.
   so geology increases and influences rates of sub aerial and erosion process. its a more stronger factor.
3. subaerial process
   types of mass movement - slump, sliding, rotational slide, rockfall.
   all these involve sediment and material flowing down by force of gravity rapidly or slowly. mass movement creates rotational scars, talus scree slopes and terraced cliff profiles. weathering processes increase sediment production which increase rate of formation of landscapes and also help break down rock and increase rates of recessions to make landforms like headlands and bays.

to conclude, although erosion processes form a variety of coastal landscapes like cave-arch-stack-stump landscapes, geology is the most responsible for forming coastal landscapes as it influences and is a part of all the processes mentioned.

Question 15

Evaluate the extent to which deposition is responsible for the formation of distinctive coastal landforms (20)

Answer 15

intro - formed by different processes including geology, erosion, deposition, transportation and sub aerial.
deposition

1. subaerial process
   types of mass movement - slump, sliding, rotational slide, rockfall.
   all these involve sediment and material flowing down by force of gravity rapidly or slowly. mass movement creates rotational scars, talus scree slopes and terraced cliff profiles. weathering processes increase sediment production which increase rate of formation of landscapes and also help break down rock and increase rates of recessions to make landforms like headlands and bays.
2. however to a larger extent, GEOLOGY more responsible for forming landscapes. geology includes shape, structure and type of rock. hard rock granite harder to erode, soft rock chalk easier to erode and make landforms.
   more joints and faults /9lines and cracks faster erosion ate as there are more weak points for erosion to target. strata in the rick helps erosion happen faster.
   geology influences sub aerial processes e.g bio and mechanical weathering happen faster if plants grow out of or water freezes inside a softer rock like chalk. also increases rate of mass movement e.g unconsolidated sediment an soft rock will weaken by rain and even dissolves cause rapid sediment flow.
   so geology increases and influences rates of sub aerial and erosion process. its a more stronger factor.
3. erosion is when rock is broken down by attrition, abrasion, solution & hydraulic action. it forms cave, arch, stack stump landscape e.g. Old Harry Rocks, erosion has a smaller place in forming landscapes than geology.
   a cave is formed from attrition when rocks hit the base of cliff making a crack, this crack widens by abrasion and hydraulic action, water is forced inside making it bigger forming a cave and then further erosion causes an arch. arch eroded by abrasion and also weathering at the top causing a stack to be formed which is eroded into a stump.
   deposition also creates landforms by longshore drift, a beach is formed when constructive waves swash is stronger than its backwash. spits are also formed when wind and L.D transport and deposit sediment across the coast, a change in wind direction can cause a recurved spit to be formed. overall the processes of erosion and deposition have a somewhat equal position in forming coastal landforms.

to conclude, although sub aerial processes form a variety of coastal landscapes like terraced cliff profiles, talus scree slopes and rotational scars, geology is the most responsible for forming coastal landscapes as it influences and is a part of all the processes mentioned.

Question 16

Evaluate the extent to which subaerial process are responsible for the formation of coastal landscapes (20)

Answer 16

intro - formed by different processes including geology, erosion, deposition, transportation and sub aerial.
sub aerial - bio, chem and mechanical weathering, mass movement

1. subaerial process
   types of mass movement - slump, sliding, rotational slide, rockfall.
   all these involve sediment and material flowing down by force of gravity rapidly or slowly. mass movement creates rotational scars, talus scree slopes and terraced cliff profiles. weathering processes increase sediment production which increase rate of formation of landscapes and also help break down rock and increase rates of recessions to make landforms like headlands and bays.
2. however to a larger extent, GEOLOGY more responsible for forming landscapes. geology includes shape, structure and type of rock. hard rock granite harder to erode, soft rock chalk easier to erode and make landforms.
   more joints and faults /9lines and cracks faster erosion ate as there are more weak points for erosion to target. strata in the rick helps erosion happen faster.
   geology influences sub aerial processes e.g bio and mechanical weathering happen faster if plants grow out of or water freezes inside a softer rock like chalk. also increases rate of mass movement e.g unconsolidated sediment an soft rock will weaken by rain and even dissolves cause rapid sediment flow.
   so geology increases and influences rates of sub aerial and erosion process. its a more stronger factor.
3. erosion is when rock is broken down by attrition, abrasion, solution & hydraulic action. it forms cave, arch, stack stump landscape e.g. Old Harry Rocks, erosion has a smaller place in forming landscapes than geology.
   a cave is formed from attrition when rocks hit the base of cliff making a crack, this crack widens by abrasion and hydraulic action, water is forced inside making it bigger forming a cave and then further erosion causes an arch. arch eroded by abrasion and also weathering at the top causing a stack to be formed which is eroded into a stump.
   deposition also creates landforms by longshore drift, a beach is formed when constructive waves swash is stronger than its backwash. spits are also formed when wind and L.D transport and deposit sediment across the coast, a change in wind direction can cause a recurved spit to be formed. overall the processes of erosion and deposition have a somewhat equal position in forming coastal landforms.

to conclude, although sub aerial processes form a variety of coastal landscapes like terraced cliff profiles, talus scree slopes and rotational scars, geology is the most responsible for forming coastal landscapes as it influences and is a part of all the processes mentioned.

Question 17

Evaluate the extent to which sea level change influences the formation of coastal landscapes (20)

Answer 17

Coastal landscapes are made up of an assemblage of landforms that have developed over time - some in the short term such as beach cusps and some over a much longer term such as headland and bays. Coastal landscapes are influenced by many factors such as the topography of the coastline as well as the lithology and the disposition of rocks such as whether they are concordant or discordant. Sea level change is another factor that can influence the formation of coastal landscapes. Sea level change is the change in the relative levels of the sea and the land. Major causes of sea level change include eustatic, isostatic and tectonic movements. This creates landforms of both emergence and submergence.

A key contribution that changes in sea level make to the formation of coastal landscapes are through eustatic changes. These occur on a global scale and are due to changes in the volume of water in the ocean. During the last glacial period water was in a frozen state in ice caps and glaciers and so caused a fall in global sea levels. Subsequent melting of the ice has meant sea levels have risen by 120m. Recently there has been the thermal expansion of the oceans caused by global warming but this is on a far smaller scale - since 1900 it is estimated that sea levels have risen by 20cm. Eustatic changes therefore contribute to coastlines of emergence where sea levels fall and submergence where sea levels rise. In submergent coastlines such as the SW England the impact of rising sea levels creates what drowned river valleys called rias due to the process of marine transgression’. As sea levels rise the pre-existing drainage pattern becomes submerged and flooded with sea water. This creates broad but shallow inlets with often steep valley sides a winding profile which reflects the original route of the river and a fairly uniform depth such as the River Dart and Dartmouth. It is important to remember, however, that the coastal landscapes of SW England are not just the result of sea level change. Rather these changes are imposed upon other pre-existing influences such as lithology and topology. SW England can be thought of as a rocky coast with outcrops of resistant rock types such as granite and sandstones. As much as sea level change these also contribute to the resulting coastal landscape of rias but with rocky headlands and cliffs.

Similarly, the topology is a key factor in forming the Dalmatian coast in the Adriatic sea. This has a coastal landscape of long, narrow inlets with a chain of islands parallel to the coast. This is as a result of the fact that before sea level rise there was a longitudinal coast where mountains run parallel or concordant to the coast. The submergence of the coastline and the subsequent marine transgression created elongated islands which were the crests of the former ranges and the narrow sounds were the former longitudinal valleys.

Furthermore, it can also be the case that the impacts of sea level change are combined with other non-marine processes. In Norway glaciation created long deep narrow U shaped valleys. After the ice melted these became flooded due to sea level rise and long thin but deep (over 1000m) inlets called fjords are created. These are straighter than a ria glacial erosion has planned off the interlocking spurs found in the pre-glacial river valley. Overall it is clear that eustatic sea level changes can significantly contribute to the formation of coastal landscapes but often are imposed upon pre-existing coastline shaped by other factors such as by rock type and lithology or moulded by processes such as glaciation.

Isostatic:
tectonic can also cause sea level rise e.g Hawaii and Croatia
force pushes the plates to form synclines and anticlines.

climate change???

write better conclusion

Question 18

Evaluate the view that climate change is the most significant factor increasing coastal flood risk for some coastlines (20)

Answer 18

Many low lying coastlines are densely populated as beaches and the sea attract a large number of tourists = population growth
Low lying deltas are extremely fertile and ideal for agriculture
Estuaries and deltas are ideal for trade with good navigable access inland up rivers
Many river deltas support megacities,
e.g. Shanghai, Yangtze Delta China - 24 million people
Dhaka, Bangladesh, Ganges-Brahmaputra delta - 14 million people
Karachi, Pakistan Indus delta - 23.5 million people
The IPCC predicts that by 2060 12% of the world’s population will be living in coastal regions less than 10 m above sea level

1. Climate change is mainly leading to increasing temperatures, greater atmospheric water vapour and so is leading to variety of climatic changes + changing weather events adding to coastal risk
   -climate change mainly can be seen to be increasing global temperatures, leading to the ocean surfaces and so leading to rising sea levels, something that clearly is putting many coastal areas at risk. Global sea level rise increases the risk of flooding in low lying coastlines = could be climate change or just eustatic change?
   Bangladesh = not only is it at risk from flooding as a result of rising sea levels, but also the increased frequency of storm events such as storm surges and cyclones, that due to warming temperatures are becoming much more frequent as a result of shifting climatic systems. this coupled also with the increasing ice melt from the Himalayan mountains adding to the discharge levels of the converging rivers, with increasing temperatures it is clear to sea that the coastline of Bangladesh is becoming more at risk, with all these factors being caused by the result of global rising temperatures and so climate change.
   Bangladesh - a 40 cm sea level rise would permanently submerge 11% of Bangladesh, creating 7-10 million environmental refugees
   Maldives - 50 cm sea level rise would permanently flood 77% of the Maldives Islands’ land area.
2. location - low lying coastlines are only 1-2 m high above (high tide) sea level so at risk from flooding
   Temporary flood risk from storm surges, permanent flooding from global sea level rise
   Bangladesh occupies the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, 60% of the country is less than 3 m high above sea level. The highest point in the Maldives is only 2.3 m above sea level
3. Vegetation Removal - due to populaton growth more deforestation also happening, and removing salt marshes and mangrove forest, reduces flood risk, stabilises existing sediment and traps new sediment, raising the height of the land above sea level, absorbs wave energy, reducing wave impact and erosion, and reduces the distance waves travel onshore before the energy is exhausted
4. Subsidence
   Low lying coastlines in estauries, deltas or outbuilding zones are subject to natural subsidence through the settling and compaction of recently deposited sediment
   However, subsidence is usually outpaced by fresh deposition and the bioaccretion of organic matter
   Deltas experience periodic isostatic subsidence when the weight of the delta sediment reaches the threshold sufficient to cause the crust to depress - leading to marine transgression and flooding

Question 19

Evaluate the consequences of coastal recession and flooding for affected coastal communities (20)

Answer 19

Consequences:
- social: loss of property/ damage of property. Potential loss of life and risk of injury. Loss of jobs/unemployment if coastal businesses are affected
- economic: damaged infrastructure, costly to repair
reduced house and land prices in that area (economic loss for homeowners and local coastal economies
-in the UK, many insurers don’t provide insurance for people living along the coast due to risk of flooding and storm surges
- environmental - habitats destroyed by storm surges, destruction of plant succession which destabilises other depositional coastal landforms
although the consequences are extreme, they can be mitigated through soft/hard engineering techniques.

mitigation techniques:
groynes - (hard engineering) protect the coastline from erosion by stopping longshore drift and catching the sand, but this makes the coastline further down from it more vulnerable to erosion
dune stabilisation- (soft engineering) marram grass planted and the roots help bind the dunes.

2 different coastal communities:
maldives? bangladesh?
UK North Sea, Philippines Typhoon Haiyaan
Greater consequences in the developing community:
social
economic
environmental

developed community:
likely a greater economic consequence due to higher value of infrastructure etc
overall consequences lessened in developed country by mitigating techniques (soft and hard engineering) which are too expensive for the developing community.

conclusion

Question 20

Explain how climate change has significant impacts on the operation of the water cycle (8)

Answer 20

Increasing greenhouse gases increase temp of sea & land = ENSO cycles happen more, evaporation increases = more moisture in atmosphere = more precipitation= more storms. Both evaporation and precipitation are increasing with climate change.

Evaporation over large areas of Asia and North America appears to be increasing. Transpiration is linked to vegetation changes, which in turn are linked to changes in soil moisture and precipitation. The length and frequency of heatwaves is increasing in some locations = increased occurrence of drought. global and local impact. Australia Drought and California. less rain decrease in soil moisture less carbon stored.

impacts ecosystems e.g rainforests. Amazon which is a carbon sink. decrease rain = less functions, cant absorb carbon and less water = affects water cycle. dry vegetation = less moisture and carbon stores. positive feedback loop more impacts = domino effect further reducing precipitation.

However climate change can help out regions e,g Sahel Region
which is extremely dry and arid that has recently experienced greater levels of precipitation than normal. With greater levels of rain this has helped the region in a process called ‘regreening’, meaning there is possibility for greater vegetation growth, something that may help the region not only in providing further levels of precipitation but also more farmland

with the negative impacts overriding this small positive.
in conclusion it can be seen that in the majority of cases as a result of increasing global temperatures as well as increasingly variable rainfall patterns, the impacts upon the hydrological will be significant, with this occurring locally but even more significantly on a global scale, particularly in regard to changing weather patterns. e.g. Amazon significant impacts.

Question 21

Assess ways in which deficits within the hydrological system can have significant impacts (12)

Answer 21

water deficit - there is not sufficient water within the hydrological to meet the needs of those that depend on it, with this often having both large scale impacts upon both humans and ecosystems as a whole.

1. drought - define meteorological and hydrological, agricultural.
   human impacts - agricultural famine humanitarian crisis, food shortages e.g Sahel Region, Yemen.
   desertification, loss of peoples livelihoods, loss of habitats.
2. ENSO cycles = more extreme weather, desertification in Sahel Region. Australian Drought, big dry day 0, rationing water. water conservation strategies like recycling grey water, desalination plants.
3. ecosystem and environmental impacts
   Pantanal biome in the amazon destroyed, forests into wildfires.
   increasing evaporation, less rain = disrupted water cycle
   forests - evapotranspiration.
   wetlands dont work, more carbon free in atmosphere, impacting the carbon cycle which is linked to water cycle domino effect of it just further enhancing further future droughts

It could though be argued that water surpluses and so flood events can also have significant impacts, especially when looking at the effect on humans as was seen in the Cumbria 2015 flood events.
UK Summer Flooding 2007 & 2012
Although in terms of the future and impacts, the clear vital role somewhere like the amazon plays and how greatly this is being impacted could be said to be more significant.
-Therefore clear deficits have wide-ranging and very significant impacts, from that on humans but also the whole environment

Question 22

Assess the role of physical factors in influencing the pattern of future water stress (12)

Answer 22

intro:
Water stress occurs when an area of land or a population has less water than is required to meet its demand. To a large extent, human factors have greater influence on future patterns of water stress than physical factors. The nature of the human influence on water stress can both be positive and negative whereas the physical influence tends to have only a detrimental effect on the level of water stress.

1
To a large extent, human factors can increase the water stress in the future. A growing population size has led to an increase in demand for resources. These resources not only include drinking water but also crops. An increase in crop demand leads to a large proportion of the freshwater supply being used for irrigation. This puts a greater strain on the water supply. In addition, the growing population can also be linked to the growing middle class, which results in a greater demand for water for leisure and everyday life (for example dishwashers, washing machines etc.)

2. However, human factors don’t just increase water stress in the future, they can also mitigate or reduce it. For example, Australia has water conservation management strategies, which include desalination plants and recycling of grey water. Israel desalination plants and nanotechnology of robots fixing pipelines! These strategies reduce the pressure on the finite fresh water supply we have left globally and reuses some of the other water sources available to us. This shows that human factors have a significant influence on the future pattern of water stress, and can both increase and decrease it.

3
Physical factors also influence the pattern of water stress, although they do this to a smaller extent than human factors. Changes in the climate can lead to extremely dry conditions in certain areas, where precipitation is scarce and therefore reduced the freshwater supply available for the population and industry. (e.g The Sahel Region has experienced desertification due to low levels of precipitation). ENSO can also result in such droughts in South-East Asia and Eastern Australia. Another climate change that can have an impact on water stress is global warming. Most of the Earth’s freshwater supply is found in the cryosphere, but with increasing temperatures, the ice sheets are melting and the water is lost to saline oceans. However, global warming is attributed to the burning of fossil fuels by humans, and cattle farming which both release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which enhance the greenhouse gas effect. Therefore, although the physical climate does influence water stress patterns, ultimately, humans can influence the climate as well, which causes the stress on water supplies.

To conclude, human factors contribute more to water stress than physical factors do because of rising population demanding more resources. they can also have a positive effect on the water scarcity through water conservation strategies. on the other hand, physical factors e.g climate change are influenced by human factors as well, supporting the statement that human factors exert the greater influence on water stress.

Question 23

Assess the extent to which deficits in the water cycle are the result of physical processes (12)

Answer 23

water deficit - there is not sufficient water within the water cycle to meet the needs of those that depend on it, with this often having both large scale impacts upon both humans and ecosystems as a whole. physical processes e.g ENSO cycles, and meteorological drought affects the water cycle to an extent. however to a larger extent, human activities result more in water deficits.

ENSO cycles - el Niño trigger dry conditions in Australia, South east Asia and America, brazil. trade winds from west to east. no Asian monsoon.
climate change - triggers more ENSO cycles. more evaporation happens, less soil moisture, less crops. more frequent and intense heatwaves: more drought.
changing rainfall patterns
desertification - Sahel region

however human factors contribute more to water deficits and drought. overpopulation, more wealth. a growing population size has led to an increase in demand for resources. These resources not only include drinking water but also crops. An increase in crop demand leads to a large proportion of the freshwater supply being used for irrigation. This puts a greater strain on the water supply. In addition, the growing population can also be linked to the growing middle class, which results in a greater demand for water for leisure and everyday life (for example dishwashers, washing machines etc.)
talk about Australia big dry 2002-2003 drought - Murray darlin basin died

overgrazing, overcultivation - vegetation cover is stripped, soil can absorbed water and store carbon, bare soil eroded more. cattle also releases methane - adds to global warming, temp of sea and land increasing = more evaporation
However, global warming is attributed to the burning of fossil fuels by humans, and cattle farming which both release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which enhance the greenhouse gas effect. Therefore, although the physical climate does influence water stress patterns, ultimately, humans can influence the climate as well, which causes the stress on water supplies.

Question 24

Assess impacts of drought on water cycle and ecosystem (12)

Answer 24

drought definition and can have social, environmental impacts.

Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to withstand and recover from a natural event (e.g. drought or flooding) or some form of human disturbance.
Wetlands currently cover about 10% of the Earth’s land surface and perform a number of important functions: from acting as temporary water stores to the recharging of aquifers, from giant filters trapping pollutants to providing nurseries for fish and feeding sites for migrating birds. Drought can have a major impact on wetlands. With less precipitation there will be less interception (as vegetation becomes stressed), as well as less infiltration and percolation. Water tables will fall. Evaporation will also increase. This, together with the decrease in transpiration, will reduce the valuable functions performed by wetlands.

Forests have significant impacts on the hydrological cycle. They are responsible for much interception. drought threatens forests, but it is people and deforestation that most threaten their survival. In coniferous forests, drought is not only causing direct physiological damage but it is also increasing the susceptibility of pines and firs to fungal diseases. Tree mortality is on the increase. The same applies to the tropical rainforest, expect that the increased mortality attributed to drought appears to be having a greater impact on large trees. Here there is the added concern of what this increased tree mortality will eventually do to this incredibly important carbon store.
As ecosystem play such a vital role within the hydrological cycle, it is important to ensure that their ecological resilience is not overstretched by either the destructive activities of people or natural events such as droughts and floods.

when rainfall is less than normal for several weeks, months, or years, the flow of streams and rivers declines, water levels in lakes and reservoirs fall, and the depth to water in wells increases

Question 25

Assess the impacts to which flooding within the hydrological cycle can have for people (12)

Answer 25

Socio-economic
death and injury
spread of water-borne diseases
trauma
damage to property, particularly housing
disruption of transport and communications
interruption of water and energy supplies
destruction of crops and loss of supplies
disturbance of everyday life, including work

Environmental
The environmental impacts of flooding receive much less publicity, perhaps because there are some positives:
recharged groundwater stores
increased connectivity between aquatic habitats
soil replenishment
for many species, flood events trigger breeding, migration and dispersal

Most ecosystems have a degree of ecological resilience that can cope with the effects of moderate flooding, It is where the environment has been degraded human activities that negative impacts are more evident. For example, the removal of soil and sediment by floodwaters can lead to the eutrophication of water bodies. That same floodwater can also leach pollutants into water courses with disastrous effects for wildlife, while diseases carried by floodwater can weaken or kill trees.

Question 26

Assess the extent to which physical process are responsible for the causes of flooding (12)

Answer 26

The primary causes of floods are either meteorological, such as short-term weather events, or longer-term climatic causes such as rainfall patterns. In the UK, the usual cause of flooding is prolonged or heavy rain associated with the passage of low-pressure systems or depressions e.g UK wettest summer floods of 2007 and 2012.
In southern and eastern Asia, intense seasonal monsoon rainfall can result in widespread, damaging flooding. For example, Bangladesh is at risk due to being in a low-lying location, 80% of their people are exposed to flood risk and half of the country is less than 12.5m above sea level. This proves that the location of a region can immediately expose them to flood risk, regardless of if there are any human factors

Another factor that encourage floods physically is through the processes of snow and ice. Melting snow in the late spring regularly causes extensive flooding in the continental interiors of Asia and America. The quick transition from winter to spring upstream causes rapid snow melting, while their lower reaches remain frozen, with very limited infiltration. Flood water is often held up by temporary ice dams. Sometimes rain falls on melting snow when a rapid thaw occurs and this combination can cause heavy flooding. In addition, other physical factors that can affect flood risk include the amount and type of vegetation, the slope, the rock type, drainage density and soil depth. All these factors show physical landscape can naturally increase flood risk.

As well as physical factors, human factors are also responsible for flooding. Deforestation is the removal of trees and vegetation, meaning a reduction in evapotranspiration and an increase in surface run off. This will have an effect on a storm hydrograph, if there is no vegetation to intercept water then surface run-off will reach the river much quicker, the short lag time means the river will reach peak discharge very quickly, and in result cause flooding. In the Amazonia rainforest over 20% of the forest has been cleared, for reasons such as cattle ranching, large scale commercial agriculture for biofuels, soya beans, the development of roads. The amazon contains 60% of the world’s rainforest. 75% of intercepted water is returned by evapotranspiration to the atmosphere, this is reduced to 25% when the forest is cleared. As more water runs off into the Amazon drainage system, this exacerbates the possibility of severe flooding. So, deforestation clearly has a negative impact for flooding as it leads to a reduction in evapotranspiration and an increase in surface run-off, speeding up the cycle

This closely links to the problem of urbanisation. A combination of economic and population growth throughout the twentieth century have caused many flood plains to be built on and many natural landscapes to be modified for agricultural, industrial and urban purposes. Urbanisation causes a number of factors which increase flood risk; first being the creation of impermeable tarmac surfaces, this means that not interception can take place so more surface run-off will reach the river in larger volumes and more quickly, for example, in London around 60% of gardens have been paved over in order to create parking spaces, this proves how much ground is being converted into impermeable surfaces and is increasing with time. Secondly, the speeding up of drainage of water in built-up areas via drains and sewers, means that more water is getting to rivers faster, so in a heavy rainfall event the lag time of a river would be very short and would be likely to flood fast.

In conclusion, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that physical factors do increase flooding, whether human disturbances are there or not, some regions are naturally more at risk to flooding due to factors such as rock type and soil depth. Humans to a somewhat equal extent increasing flooding risk by rapidly increasing urbanisation and activities such as deforestation that speed up the flooding cycle and can ultimately increase the amount of river discharge too. So, whether human factors or physical factors are more responsible for the flooding depends on the location and landscape

Question 27

Assess the extent to which human actions are responsible for the causes of flooding (12)

Answer 27

There are significant factors in which prove that humans play a role in causing flooding. One important factor is the concept of deforestation. This is the removal of trees and vegetation, meaning a reduction in evapotranspiration and an increase in surface run off. This will have an obvious effect on a storm hydrograph, if there is no vegetation to intercept water then surface run-off will reach the river much quicker, the short lag time means the river will reach peak discharge very quickly, and in result cause flooding. An example of the effects it has is the Amazonia rainforest. In this location, over 20% of the forest has been cleared, for reasons such as cattle ranching, large scale commercial agriculture for biofuels, soya beans, the development of roads and legal and illegal logging. The amazon contains 60% of the world’s rainforest. 75% of intercepted water is returned by evapotranspiration to the atmosphere, this is reduced to 25% when the forest is cleared. As more water runs off into the Amazon drainage system, this exacerbates the possibility of severe flooding. So, deforestation clearly has a negative impact for flooding as it leads to a reduction in evapotranspiration and an increase insurface run-off, speeding up the cycle.

This closely links to the problem of urbanisation. A combination of economic and population growth throughout the twentieth century have caused many flood plains to be built on and many natural landscapes to be modified for agricultural, industrial and urban purposes. Urbanisation causes a number of factors which increase flood risk; first being the creation of impermeable tarmac surfaces, this means that not interception can take place so more surface run-off will reach the river in larger volumes and more quickly, for example, in London around 60% of gardens have been paved over in order to create parking spaces, this proves how much ground is being converted into impermeable surfaces and is increasing with time. Secondly, the speeding up of drainage of water in built-up areas via drains and sewers, means that more water is getting to rivers faster, so in a heavy rainfall event the lag time of a river would be very short and would be likely to flood fast.]

These factors clearly suggest that humans do influence flooding to a considerable extent, although there are also significant physical factors that naturally occur that will influence flooding too. The primary causes of floods are either meteorological, such as short-term weather events, or longer-term climatic causes such as rainfall patterns. In the UK, the usual cause of flooding is prolonged or heavy rain associated with the passage
of low-pressure systems or depressions. The degree of flooding can depend on precise depression sequence, sometimes a succession of very intense storms has a cumulative effect on the drainage system, like in October-December 2015. In other areas, in particular southern and eastern Asia, intense seasonal monsoon rainfall can result in widespread, damaging flooding. For example, Bangladesh is at risk due to being in a low-lying location, 80% of their people are exposed to flood risk and half of the country is less than 12.5m above sea level. This proves that the location of a region can immediately expose them to flood risk, regardless of if there are any human factors.

Another factor that can encourage floods physically is through the processes of snow and ice. This usually occurs in higher latitudes or mountainous areas. Melting snow in the late spring regularly causes extensive flooding in the continental interiors of Asia and America. The quick transition from winter to spring upstream causes rapid snow melting, while their lower reaches remain frozen, with very limited infiltration. Flood water is often held up by temporary ice dams. Sometimes rain falls on melting snow when a rapid thaw occurs and this combination can cause heavy flooding. In addition, other physical factors that can affect flood risk include the amount and type of vegetation, the slope, the rock type, drainage density and soil depth. All these factors show that even without human interference, physical landscape can naturally increase flood risk

n conclusion, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that humans do increase flooding, such as the rapidly increasing urbanisation and activities such as deforestation that speed up the flooding cycle and can ultimately increase the amount of river discharge too. However, there are physical factors which show that whether human disturbances are there or not, some regions are naturally more at risk to flooding due to factors such as rock type and soil depth. So, whether human factors or physical factors are more responsible for the flooding depends on the location and landscape.

Question 28

Assess the impacts of climate change on the flows (processes) in the water cycle (locally and globally) (12)

Answer 28

climate change is increase in atmospheric temperatures, leading to more moisture holding capacity by the atmosphere and overall increasing global land temperatures, all of which can be seen to be having a large impact on the hydrological cycle.

Climate change can be seen to be increasing global temperatures as well impacting upon short term weather patterns such as ENSO cycles. El nino events triggers drought in south east asia, Australia, Indonesia, south east America and triggers wet conditions in places like peru. Many scientists predict that with increasing global temperatures, events such as El nino are likely to increase in frequency, therefore so will events such as floods and droughts. This combined with increasing average temperatures therefore can be seen to be having a large impact, both globally and locally. An example of where such deficits have already begun to have a significant impact can be seen upon vital ecosystems such as rainforests that play an important role in the water cycle, both locally within areas where this occurs but also globally too.
An example = Amazon rainforest, where as a result in decreasing levels of precipitation, droughts are becoming much more common = leads to rainforest not being able to perform functions such as absorb carbon from the atmosphere which is then in turn just exacerbating the effects on the water cycle. More carbon is increasing temperatures, drying out vegetation and then reducing the vegetarians ability to transpire and evaporate, reducing the amount of moisture in the air further reducing precipitation levels. called positive feedback loops!!! with warming temperatures just leading to further impacts on the vegetation causing a domino effect on its function within the hydrological cycle, adding to the frequency of deficits within countries such as Brazil, as well as then impact globally on precipitation patterns as a result of such reduced evapotranspiration and reduction of the amazon operating as a carbon sink, something that plays a key role in helping to maintain the carbon balance and so reduce increasing temperatures.

-another impact on a more local scale of increasing temperatures can be seen as a result of reductions in precipitation in areas such as California, a state that relies heavily upon rainfall patterns but that has begun to experience what scientists are now calling ‘Mega droughts’, expected to last up to 30 yrs. This increase in temperatures is impacting upon all elements of the hydrological cycle within the region, each then having a significant knock on effect upon each. Evaporation rates have increased combined with a decrease in precipitation.

soil moisture decreases as temp rises. less water infiltration and more surface runoff. this can cause flooding. different regions need different levels of soil moisture. vegetation has increased transpiration.
lakes & reservoirs regulate water flow. water is stored there. rising temp means water evaporating.
permafrost stores water in ice and soil form. cryosphere also stores water as ice. due to hotter temp, permafrost layer is thinning and melting. ice is now stored as water.

-It must though be said that climate change may well lead to some positive impacts, perhaps not globally but particularly upon certain localised regions. An example of this can be seen in the Sahel region, a place known for being extremely dry and arid that has recently experienced greater levels of precipitation than normal. With greater levels of rain this has helped the region in a process called ‘regreening’, meaning there is possibility for greater vegetation growth, something that may help the region not only in providing further levels of precipitation but also more farmland. this example does show how climate change cannot be a definite negative on all areas of the hydrological cycle, but this may be more locally especially compared to the global evidence of changing detrimental weather patterns already being seen.

Conclusion- therefore in conclusion it can be seen that in the majority of cases as a result of increasing global temperatures as well as increasingly variable rainfall patterns, the impacts upon the hydrological will be significant, with this occurring locally but even more significantly on a global scale, particularly in regard to changing weather patterns.

Question 29

Evaluate the view that causes of drought are predominantly meteorological (20)

Answer 29

Meteorological:
temperature and humidity (high temp and low humidity )
hydrological ( precipitation increases and evaporation is going to increase, lakes, rivers decrease in volume)

Geographical
location (eg Australia’s Outback and Sahel - band of (mostly) landlocked countries)

Anthropogenic:
Agriculture - irrigation of crops has a huge demand on water supply, desertification leads to wasted water in terms of run off when it does eventually rain

Droughts are generally caused by meteorological events, but anthropogenic activity can have an effect on the severity of the drought and the frequency.

Sahel Region - countries between Ethiopia and Mauritania - desertification, humanitarian crisis
Australia - day zero = however management of water and conservation prevented desertification.
Mitigation - ENSO cycles

Question 30

Evaluate the view that flooding mainly causes socio economic impacts (20)

Answer 30

The biggest, most obvious effect is death. Floods, especially flash floods, will kill people. Flood water can travel surprisingly quickly and weighs3 a lot, so people can easily get swept away by floods. Large chunks of debris and objects like cars can easily get picked up by floodwater and can easily kill a person should they get hit by the debris. In a LEDC, you’re generally going to get much more deaths than you would in a MEDC. In a MEDC, people and governments are better prepared for floods. Rescue services can be dispatched to a flood quickly in a MEDC whereas in a LEDC, rescue teams mightn’t arrive until several hours after the flood started.

During a flood, sewage pipes are often broken and raw sewage leaks into the floodwater. This has two effects. First, it contaminates not just floodwater but drinking water too which leads to a spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera especially in LEDCs where emergency drinking water mightn’t be available. Second, the sewage gets into people’s homes which is just horrible, disgusting and incredibly difficult to clean.

In LEDCs, famines can follow floods which can lead to even more deaths. Floods will commonly inundate farmland because farmland normally develops on floodplains. If the floodwater is polluted by sewage, it will contaminate the farmland and make any food grown on it dangerous to eat. Furthermore, cattle are often killed by floods which can lead to people starving because they either don’t have a source of food or don’t have a source of income to buy food with.

The big economic effect of a flood is property damage. Water can cause a lot of damage to property and when it picks up large chunks of debris such as cars, it can act like a wrecking ball, taking out chunks of buildings when cars crash into them. Very large and powerful floods can even dislodge buildings from their foundations and move them. In a MEDC, property damage is often extensive as people have lots of expensive possessions. This isn’t the case in LEDCs but that’s only because people don’t have a lot to lose in the first place. This means that the overall cost of a flood is generally substantially higher in a MEDC than in a LEDC.

Floods can cause extensive damage to infrastructure such as power lines, roads, water pipes etc. Bridges frequently collapse during a flood as they aren’t designed to withstand the high discharge of the river. The Northside Bridge in Workington, Cumbria collapsed when there were large floods in 2009. Repairing bridges and other types of infrastructure is very costly. Not only this, it can lead to a decline in the local economy as businesses are unable to operate without power or road connections. Unemployment can even increase if businesses are unable to fully recover from a flood. The economic impact of infrastructure damage and unemployment is larger in MEDCs since these countries have modern and expensive infrastructure in place. In LEDCs, this infrastructure is lacking, so there isn’t much economic damage. In fact, in a LEDC, floods can lead to positive economic effects in the long term. An influx of funding to a less developed area from charities and NGOs after a flood can result in new infrastructure being constructed that is substantially better than the previously existing infrastructure. This, in turn, creates new economic opportunities in an area by, for example, creating new trade routes.

Another economic benefit comes from when a river floods and deposits sediment across the floodplain. This improves the fertility of the floodplain and can improve agricultural yield in an area (assuming the floodwater wasn’t polluted).

loodwater that is contaminated with sewage will pollute rivers and land when it drains back into the river. Similarly, if the river floods onto farmland, the water can be polluted by pesticides and other chemicals sprayed onto the farmland that, when drained back into the river, can pollute it and kill off wildlife that inhabits the river. If the floodwater isn’t polluted though, flooding can create wetlands that can help introduce new habitats for many species of animals.

The environmental impacts of flooding receive much less publicity, perhaps because there are some positives:
recharged groundwater stores
increased connectivity between aquatic habitats
soil replenishment
for many species, flood events trigger breeding, migration and dispersal

Most ecosystems have a degree of ecological resilience that can cope with the effects of moderate flooding, It is where the environment has been degraded human activities that negative impacts are more evident. For example, the removal of soil and sediment by floodwaters can lead to the eutrophication of water bodies. That same floodwater can also leach pollutants into water courses with disastrous effects for wildlife, while diseases carried by floodwater can weaken or kill trees.

Question 31

Evaluate the view that climate change has greatest potential to impact the hydrological cycle (20)

Answer 31

hydrological cycle
stores:
-permafrost (good link to climate change - melting permafrost releases CH4 , results in global warming = positive feedback loop) + glaciers
-ocean, rising sea levels due to melting ice sheets and glaciers

transfers:

• precipitation- more extreme in its variation (long periods of draught/ intense rain) - human factor pollution = condensation nuclei = cloud formation
• surface-run off - increasing (less infiltration due to urbanisation, deforestation, erosion of soil (can also lead to desertification), damaged soil structure = poor infiltration = surface run off)

Climate change - natural event, worsened by human activity (burning fossil fuels - more greenhouse gases - enhanced greenhouse gas effect (different to greenhouse gas effect, although its the same principle - more gases stuck in atmosphere and reflecting suns energy back)

Physical factors- ENSO cycles - change in water body patterns. ENSO can also trigger extremely dry conditions in areas South & South-East Asia, Eastern Australia and North-East Brazil

To a large extent, climate change has the biggest potential to impact …

• precipitation- more extreme in its variation (long periods of draught/ intense rain) - human factor pollution = condensation nuclei = cloud formation
• surface-run off - increasing (less infiltration due to urbanisation, deforestation, erosion of soil (can also lead to desertification), damaged soil structure = poor infiltration = surface run off)

On the other hand:
ENSO = drought = no precipitation

Question 32

Explain why level of economic development affects energy mix of countries (6)

Answer 32

The Energy Mix of a country is the specific combination of different energy sources it uses to meet its energy consumption needs. important part of energy security.
countries that have a high level of economic development means that consumers and energy TNCs within such countries are more able afford to use more energy - and energy that is more costly, including nuclear.
countries that have a low level of economic development means that governments are more willing to utilise fossil fuels, including coal (e.g. over 50% of electricity is derived from coal in China), oil and gas, that are often more economically-viable and found in abundance domestically; yet, countries that have a high level of economic development may be at the later stages of the ‘energy transition’ meaning that such countries are more economically-able to utilise renewable and ‘carbon-neutral’ energy sources that are often more expensive.
for some, energy policy will be taking the cheapest route to meeting the nation’s energy needs, regardless of the environmental costs. Others will seek to increase their reliance on renewable sources of energy; wile still other will have in place policies that raise energy efficiency and energy saving.
Ensures energy security by reducing or preventing the need for foreign imports that would increase dependency.
USA more developed than France, france is less energy secure it relies on 50% imports. French energy mix is different, with half its energy coming from fossil fuels and around 40% coming from nuclear energy & 10% renewable. USA mix is 3quarters of energy comes from fossil fuels and 10% renewable.

Question 33

Assess the impacts of climate warming on components of the carbon cycle (12)

Question 34

Assess the roles of oceans in regulating the carbon cycle (12)

Answer 34

vital role in regulating carbon cycle, carbon is essential for life, enters atmosphere through respiration, combustion, weathering & erosion, circulate through planet in carbon cycle.

• ocean is important part of cycle as it acts as carbon ‘sink’ & stores much of the worlds carbon.
• in form of CO2, specific levels in atmosphere needed in order for animals to breath & plants to photosynthesise, also affects global temperature.
• atmosphere has 589Gt in form of CO2, lower than 38,000 Gt in oceans.
• due to carbon sequestration, where phytoplankton absorb carbon through - photosynthesis, turned into organic matter.
• passes through food chain, dead animals & plants accumulate on ocean floor.
• organic matter decomposes into sediment containing carbon (biological pump, providing flux between atmosphere and ocean).
• carbon also absorbed naturally at ocean surface, especially in cold waters.
• stored carbon in form of sediment eventually forms sedimentary rocks & fossil fuels (largest carbons store, est. 100,000,000 Gt of carbon).
• over time, released back into atmosphere through outgassing, weathering (slow carbon cycle) & human activities.
• cycle requires all stores & fluxes to remain complete & regulate carbon.

OR

the ocean is some of the biggest stores of carbon, it helps to maintain and balance the carbon cycle by absorbing it from one atmosphere and releasing it at the same time
the ocean works by sequestering carbon from the atmosphere to be used by
photosynthesising plants and photo plankton in the sea
this works as a biological pump as eventually the carbon containing organisms will die and fall to the bottom of the sea to help in the process of rock reforming

along with this, the oceans thermohaline currents help to bring cold, nutrient snd CO2 rich water up to the surface where it warms. it can release the fresh co2 back into the atmosphere for plants to use and then the thermohaline currents cool the water and it eventually returns to the bottom of the sea

the ocean is also helping reduce the impact of global warming
CO2 produced from burning fossil fuels can get absorbed by the ocean so it does not impact other life.
however, in recent years there has been a change to the ocean , it’s getting warmer and more acidic and it’s capacity for holding carbon is decreasing as warmer oceans are able to store less
this could result in a positive feedback loop where plants and humans and burning fossil fuels, gives out carbon and so does the ocean, increasing CO2 in the atmosphere and this continues and gets worse
Oceans play a huge role in regulating carbon cycle by sequestering it, releasing it and helping in the formation of new rocks, yet if a tipping point is reached when the oceans usefulness may start to decrease

Question 35

Asses the role of biological processes in sequestering carbon (12)

Question 36

Assess the impact of human activities on the carbon cycle (12)

Answer 36

Human activities affect the carbon cycle through emissions of carbon dioxide (sources) and removal of carbon dioxide (sinks). The carbon cycle can be affected when carbon dioxide is either released into the atmosphere or removed from the atmosphere.

Burning of Fossil Fuels
When oil or coal is burned, carbon is released into the atmosphere at a faster rate than it is removed. As a result, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases. Natural gas, oil and coal are fossil fuels that are commonly burned to generate electricity in power plants, for transportation, in homes and in other industrial complexes. The primary industrial activities that emit carbon dioxide and affect the carbon cycle are petroleum refining, paper, food and mineral production, mining and the production of chemicals.

Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees from forests. Permanent removal of the trees means new trees will not be replanted. This large-scale removal of trees from forests by people results in increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because trees are no longer absorbing carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. As a result, the carbon cycle is affected. According to National Geographic, agriculture is the primary cause of deforestation. Farmers remove trees on a large-scale basis to increase acreage for crops and livestock.

Carbon Sequestration
When plants remove carbon dioxide from the air and store it, the process is called carbon sequestration. Agricultural and forestry methods can affect how much carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and stored by the plants. These sinks of carbon dioxide can be farms, grasslands or forests. Human activity in managing farmland or forests affects the amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere by plants and trees. These sinks of carbon dioxide affect the carbon cycle by decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the air.

Agriculture or farming
can have a significant impact upon the carbon budget. Farming is essential for life on earth as it provides people with the food they need, but with increasing numbers of people on the planet and modern agricultural methods the impact upon the environment can be large. Farming impacts upon the carbon budget in the following ways;
1. People have cleared vast areas of natural biomes and replaced them with crops and pasture. Although farmed plants do take in carbon seasonally, it tends to be far less that the storage in a natural biome. In Tropical forests the process of slash and burn releases huge amounts of stored carbon, and the replacement farming of soya and pasture for cattle takes in small amounts. Palm oil plantations take in more carbon than soya, but not as much as tropical forests. In the UK, the same can be said of our clearing of vast areas of deciduous forest to make way for our farms.
2. Peat lands and wetlands have been drained and used for farmland. In doing so, methane is released as organic matter that was previously stored and in anaerobic conditions can now decay.
3. There has been a huge increase in stock densities of animals such as cattle and chickens as global demand for animal products increases. These animals produce huge amounts of methane during their digestive processes and this is released into the atmosphere. Up to 60% of all agricultural emissions of carbon come from this pastoral farming. Researchers at the University of Oxford found that cutting meat and dairy products from your diet could reduce an individual’s carbon footprint from food by up to 73 per cent. 10
4. Rice paddies produce methane. T

Half of the world’s population lives in cities, a share that is likely to reach 70 percent in 2050. 18 Cities are major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. This is because;
1. Cities consume as much as 80 percent of energy production worldwide, due to the many industrial activities that take place within them.
2. As development proceeds, greenhouse gas emissions are driven less by industrial activities and more by the energy services required for lighting, heating, and cooling.
3. A lot of the cement produced creates greenhouse gasses
It is not surprising that rich cities use more energy than poor cities and therefore emit more greenhouse gas emissions.

however humans can also decrease co2 emissins by using renewbles, nuclear energy, bifules carbon free and hydrgoen fuel cells

Question 37

Assess the factors affecting access to and consumption of energy resources (12)

Answer 37

Energy security: when there is an uninterrupted availability of energy at a national level and at an affordable price. All countries seek to achieve this; the most secure energy situation is where the national demand for energy can be completely satisfied by domestic sources. The more a country demands on imported energy, the more it is exposed to risks of an economic and geopolitical kind.

aspects of energy security are:
availability, accessibility , affordability, reliability

energy is vital for country to function. it powers transport, lights, commercial agriculture; warms/cools homes and domestic appliances, modern communications, manufacturing.

consumption of energy is measured in two ways:
in per capita terms (as kilogrammes of oil equivalent or megawatt hours per person. In general, this measure rises with economic development)
by energy intensity (calculating the units of energy used per unit GDP.) The fewer the units of energy, the more efficiently a country is using its energy supply. energy intensity values decrease with economic development

Factors affecting per capita energy consumption:

• physical availability
• cost
• standard of living
• environmental priorities (of governments) for some, energy policy will be taking the cheapest route to meeting the nation’s energy needs, regardless of the environmental costs. Others will seek to increase their reliance on renewable sources of energy; wile still other will have in place policies that raise energy efficiency and energy saving
• climate/ weather. high levels of consumption in North America, Middle East and Australia reflect the extra energy needed to make the extremes of heat and cold more comfortable (at home, at work and in public places)
• public perception. for some consumers, energy is perceived almost as a human right and therefore to be used with little or no regard for the environmental consequences. Others give priority to minimising the wastage of energy and maximising security
• economic development !!!!!
• technology

USA and France rank second and tenth in the league table of energy consumers respectively, but total energy consumption in France is only one-tenth that of the USA. The difference is largely explained by differences in population - 318.9 million in the USA compared with 64.6 million in France. In per capita terms, the USA tops the rankings whilst France is placed sixth.

USA, over three quarters of energy comes from fossil fuels and 10% renewable.
French energy mix is different, with half its energy coming from fossil fuels and around 40% coming from nuclear energy & 10% renewable.

France is much less energy secure than the USA, because nearly half of its primary energy is imported. The USA is much more self-sufficient importing only 15%.

Question 38

Assess the role of energy players in securing energy pathways and supplies (12)

Answer 38

economic players / political players - governments national and OPEC members, TNCs
environmental players - consumers
social players- consumers

non-renewable - fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)
renewable - (wind, tidal, solar, hydroelectric, hydrothermal)

energy pathways - route taken by any form of energy from its source to its point of consumption. The routes involve different forms of transport, such as tanker ships, pipelines and electricity transmission grids.

Biggest player with larges role:
economic and political players - OPEC and National governments
Russia - oil companies like Gazprom extract, process and refine oil to export.
TNC = Shell in Nigeria - Oil spills + environmental degradation (loss of jobs due to pollution), wasteful, increased crime,

OPEC - 13 countries, 81% of worlds known oil supply
Their mission is to unify the petroleum policies of its members to ensure the stabilisation of oil markets
2012-2016 = flooding market caused a collapse in global oil prices
Accused of driving prices too high ( developing countries unable to continue to develop economically)

consumers plays a role, and significantly affects the producers :
consumers - they create specific demands (transport, housing, electricity), dependent on the socio-economic status of the consumer
environmentally concerned consumers - fossil fuels are finite, and the richer a country the more educated the consumers will be on subjects such as global warming etc.

Question 39

Assess potential of renewable energy resources to decouple fossil duels from economic growth (12)

Answer 39

The global drive to reduce carbon dioxide emissions must involve increasing reliance on alternative sources of ‘clean’ energy, so decoupling economic growth from dependence on fossil fuels. Basically, this means widening the energy mix to include substantial inputs from both renewable and recyclable energy sources.
The main sources of renewable energy today are hydro, wind, solar, geothermal and tidal.

1. costs and benefits economically, socially, and environmentally, and in terms of their contribution to energy security. (changing UK energy mix) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! write this
   advantages:
   renewable - wont run out
   no greenhouse gas emission
   disadvantages:
   Not all countries have renewable energy to exploit for geographic reasons:
   not all countries have coasts, strongly flowing rivers or climates with either long sunshine hours or persistently strong winds
   Partly because of this, there are very few, if any, countries where renewables might completely replace all the energy derived from fossil fuels.
   the relative financial costs of using non-renewable and renewable energy sources. When oil and gas prices are low, renewables become a more expensive option.
   the harnessing of renewables is not without environmental costs. River valleys have to be drowned to create HEP reservoirs, and large areas of land/the offshore zone are covered by solar or wind farms.
   While the majority of people believe that we should make greater use of renewable sources, most suddenly go off the idea when constructing a wind or solar farm near them is proposed (NIMBYism)
   paris 2016 agreement
2. ALSO ​In addition, those countries with high levels of energy consumption will have no option but to look to NUCLEAR energy to generate their electricity supply in a reasonably carbon-free manner. A possible plus here is that nuclear waste can be reprocessed and reused, thereby making it into a recyclable energy source.
   ​Downsides of nuclear energy:
   risks to do with safety and security (accidents and terrorism) e.g. Fukushima Japan power plant
   the disposal of radioactive waste with an incredibly long decay life
   the technology involved is complex and therefore its use is only an option for developed countries
   although the operational costs are low, the costs of constructing and decommissioning power stations are high

a world without use of fossil fuels is impossible, however a world deriving much of its energy from renewable and recyclable sources and using hydrogen cells does promise little disturbance of the carbon cycle, it also promises a longer human survival on Earth.

Question 40

Evaluate the view that human activities are increasingly altering the carbon cycle (20)

Answer 40

humans balancing it?
making it worse:
- 90% of anthropogenic (human-related) carbon release comes from burning fossil fuels according to IPCC
-The 10% comes from is caused by land-use change such as deforestation, agricultural practices and land drainage.
Ploughing and harvesting, having cattle, machinery that burns fossil fuels, fertilisers that contain fossil fuels.
amazon deforestation
-enhanced greenhouse effect - increasing global temp and more carbon in atmosphere
urbanisation - Stores vegetation, are replaced or covered up e.g soils.

making it better:
ADAPTATION
Water Conservation and Management
Benefits = fewer resources used, less groundwater abstraction
Costs and Risks = efficiency and conservation cannot match increased demands for water, Changing cultural habits of a large water footprint needs promotion and enforcement by governments, e.g. smart meters

Resilient Agricultural Systems
Benefits = Higher-tech, drought-tolerant species help resistance to climate change and increase in diseases
help carbon dioxide sequestration and water storage: selective irrigation, crop rotation, reduced ploughing, agroforestry.
Costs and risks = More expensive technology, seeds and breeds unavailable to poor subsistence farmers without aid
High energy costs from indoor and intensive farming
Genetic modification is still debated, but frequently used to crease resistant strains, e.g. rice and soya
Growing food insecurity in many places adds pressure to find ‘quick fixes’

Land-use Planning
Benefits = soft management: land-use zoning, building restrictions in vulnerable flood plains and low-lying coasts
Costs = Public antipathy, abandoning high-risk areas and land-use resettling is often unfeasible, as in megacities such as Dhaka, Bangladesh or Tokyo-Yokohama
Needs strong governance, enforcement and compensation

Flood-Risk Management
Benefits = hard-management traditionally used: localised flood defences, river dredging
Simple changes can reduce flood risk, e.g. permeable tarmac
Reduced deforestation and more afforestation upstream to absorb water and reduce downstream flood risk
Costs and Risks = debate over fniding sources, especially in times of economic austerity
Land owners may demand compensation for afforestation or ‘sacrificial land’ kept for flooding
Constant maintenance is needed in hard management, e.g. dredging; lapses of management can increase risk
Ingrained culture of ‘techno-centric fixes’: a disbelief that technology cannot overcome natural processes

Solar Radiation Management
Benefits = geoengineering involves ideas and plans to deliberately intervene in the climate system to counteract global warming
The proposal is to use orbiting satellites to reflect some inward radiation back into space, rather like a giant sunshade
It could cool the Earth within months and be relatively cheap compared with mitigation
Costs and Risks = Untried and untested
Would reduce but not eliminate the worst effects of GHGs: for example, it would not alter acidification
Involves tinkering with a very complex system, which might have unintended consequences or externalities
Would need to continue geoengineering for decades or centuries as there would be a rapid adjustment in the climate system if SRM stopped suddenly

mix of soft- and hard-engineering actions. Some of those actions are low in technology and upfront costs and so, in theory, are possible options for developing countries. A change in traditional practices and customs is often required here. However, there are also actions requiring high inputs of capital and technology that only developed countries can contemplate. The whole of the solar radiation management strategy falls into this category.

MITIGATION
The long-term solution to the global warming crisis lies in rebalancing the carbon cycle, particularly reducing the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere. None of the mitigation strategies is straightforward, except possibly afforestation. Successful implementation requires a society to change the way it thinks and acts. Some mitigation has a high technological tariff.

Carbon taxation
minimum price companies have to pay to emit carbon dioxide.
Lower road taxes for low-carbon-emitting cars were scrapped in 2015. In 2015, oil and gas exploration tax relief was expanded to support fossil fuels, hence the fracking debate

Renewable Switching
from fossil fuels to renewables and nuclear power. Renewables provide intermittent electricity, while fossil fuels provide the continuous power essential for our current infrastructure.
The Climate Change Levy in 2001 made to encourage renewable energy investment and use but was cut in 2015

Energy Efficiency
The Green Deal scheme encouraged energy-saving improvements to homes, (efficient boilers & lighting, improved insulation.) It was scrapped in 2015.

Afforestation
Tree planting in the UK is increasing, helps carbon sequestration. It involves the Forestry Commission, charities such as the National Trust and the Woodland Trust, landowners and local authorities.
The Big Tree Plant campaign encourages communities to plant 1 million new trees, mostly in urban areas.

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
Few actual geologic CCS projects exist globally, despite its potential. in 2015, the UK government cancelled its investment in full-scale projects at gas- and coal-powered plants in Scotland and Yorkshire.

Question 41

Evaluate the role of energy players in securing energy pathways and supplies (20)

Answer 41

energy pathways - route taken by any form of energy from its source to its point of consumption. involve different forms of transport, such as tanker ships, pipelines and electricity transmission grids.

non-renewable - fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)
renewable - (wind, tidal, solar, hydroelectric, hydrothermal)
nuclear? recyclable

economic players / political players - governments national and OPEC members, TNCs
environmental players - consumers
social players- consumers

Biggest player with larges role:
economic and political players - OPEC and National governments
Russia - oil companies like Gazprom extract, process and refine oil to export.
TNC = Shell in Nigeria - Oil spills + environmental degradation (loss of jobs due to pollution), wasteful, increased crime,

OPEC - 13 countries, 81% of worlds known oil supply
Their mission is to unify the petroleum policies of its members to ensure the stabilisation of oil markets
2012-2016 = flooding market caused a collapse in global oil prices
Accused of driving prices too high ( developing countries unable to continue to develop economically)
governments - developed more cautious about their energy mix - use more renewables. Paris agreement 2015

consumers also plays a smaller role, and significantly affects the producers :
consumers - they create specific demands (transport, housing, electricity), dependent on the socio-economic status of the consumer
environmentally concerned consumers - fossil fuels are finite, and the richer a country the more educated the consumers will be on subjects such as global warming etc.

Question 42

Evaluate the costs and benefits of alternatives to fossil fuels (20)

Answer 42

fossil fuel meaning:
costs and benefits

alternatives (renewable)
hydro
solar
tidal
wind
geothermal
advantages and disadvantages

recyclable energy - define nuclear
costs and benefits

biofuels -organic matter used as a fuel. reducing both the burning of fossil fuels and carbon dioxide emisions. The most widely grown biofuel crops include wheat, maize, grasses, soy beans and sugar cane. In the UK, the two main crops are oilseed rape and sugar beet. Most of these two crops are converted into ethanol or biodiesel, which are mainly used as a vehicle fuel.
each hectare of farmland used to grow energy crops means a hectare less for growing much-needed food in an increasingly hungry world. They are supposedly carbon neutral, since the carbon dioxide they produce when burnt, is only that they took from the environment whilst growing, but there is uncertainty over how carbon neutral they actually are. (Since what was on the land before them, e.g. a forest, is destroyed.)
Since the 1970s, Brazil has taken steps to diversify its energy mix and improve its energy security. This drive has been spearheaded by developing the country’s considerable hydropower resources. More recently, it has added biofuels to its energy mix. Although less than 5% of Brazil’s energy comes from renewable energy sources, 90% of new passenger vehicles sold in the country have flex-fuel engines that work using any combination of petrol and ethanol. This has led to a significant reduction in the country’s carbon emissions.

Large areas of central southern Brazil are now set aside for the cultivation of sugar cane and the subsequent production of ethanol. The result has been the displacement of other types of agriculture, particularly cattle rearing. The need to find replacement pastures has led to large-scale clearance of tropical rainforest in the Amazon Basin. This deforestation nullifies the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions gained from the increasing use of ethanol.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells
These combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water. They will produce electricity for as long as hydrogen is supplied and never lose their charge.
electric cars

conclusion:
which is the best?
fossil fuels swill alkways be used, cheap reliable
widen energy mix to use alternatives and fossil fuels together - less emissions than using only just fossil fuels

Question 43

Evaluate the view that renewable energy can help decouple (stop) fossil fuels from economic growth (20)

Answer 43

The global drive to reduce carbon dioxide emissions must involve increasing reliance on alternative sources of ‘clean’ energy, so decoupling economic growth from dependence on fossil fuels. Basically, this means widening the energy mix to include substantial inputs from both renewable and recyclable energy sources.
The main sources of renewable energy today are hydro, wind, solar, geothermal and tidal.

1. costs and benefits economically, socially, and environmentally, and in terms of their contribution to energy security. (changing UK energy mix) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! write this
   advantages:
   renewable - wont run out
   no greenhouse gas emission
   disadvantages:
   Not all countries have renewable energy to exploit for geographic reasons:
   not all countries have coasts, strongly flowing rivers or climates with either long sunshine hours or persistently strong winds
   Partly because of this, there are very few, if any, countries where renewables might completely replace all the energy derived from fossil fuels.
   the relative financial costs of using non-renewable and renewable energy sources. When oil and gas prices are low, renewables become a more expensive option.
   the harnessing of renewables is not without environmental costs. River valleys have to be drowned to create HEP reservoirs, and large areas of land/the offshore zone are covered by solar or wind farms.
   While the majority of people believe that we should make greater use of renewable sources, most suddenly go off the idea when constructing a wind or solar farm near them is proposed (NIMBYism)
   paris 2016 agreement
2. ALSO ​In addition, those countries with high levels of energy consumption will have no option but to look to NUCLEAR energy to generate their electricity supply in a reasonably carbon-free manner. A possible plus here is that nuclear waste can be reprocessed and reused, thereby making it into a recyclable energy source.
   ​Downsides of nuclear energy:
   risks to do with safety and security (accidents and terrorism) e.g. Fukushima Japan power plant
   the disposal of radioactive waste with an incredibly long decay life
   the technology involved is complex and therefore its use is only an option for developed countries
   although the operational costs are low, the costs of constructing and decommissioning power stations are high

a world without use of fossil fuels is impossible, however a world deriving much of its energy from renewable and recyclable sources and using hydrogen cells does promise little disturbance of the carbon cycle, it also promises a longer human survival on Earth.

Question 44

Evaluate the view that changes to the carbon cycle pose more threats to people than changes to the water cycle (20)

Answer 44

carbon change - more threats.

1. water cycle - give water for everyday use, meets basic human needs (cooking, cleaning, washing)
changes in water cycle can lead to ENSO cycle, more extreme weather cycles happen. El Nino events trigger dry conditions in Australia, South East Asia, South East America, Indonesia and triggers wet flooding in Europe, Peru, Asian regions Monsoon. La Nina events cause the extreme version of normal events, trade winds blow from east to west on the pacific ocean. they happen every 5-7years. 
Drought leads to desertification which is change of once fertile land to desert like land. huge threats to people e.g Sahel Region drought due to location, over abstraction, overcultivation, overgrazing or crops loses vegetation cover, less soil moisture so carbon also released, less crops grown = agricultural famine and malnutrition of people esp babies and elderly, diseases, humanitarian crisis!
Another example (developing country) Australian reoccurring Drought. 30% of its land that's rainfall deficient so not enough supply to meet demand. Australia also grew unsustainable almond farms. this caused a big dry in 2006. however due to careful water management plans, they managed to get by with the water they have so no desertification happened.

ecosystems impacted by water cycle AND carbon aswell. wetlands cover 10% of earth, key functions: trap pollutants maintain water quality, temporary water store, nursery for birds and fishes. if water cycle changes wetlands at risk of being lost = drought means higher transpiration levels water lost and also a carbon store as peat is exploited so more carbon in the air and less supply of water.
forests also impacted : main source of interception. higher temp = less infiltration, less overland flow, less transpiration. pines and fir trees affected by fungal diseases = tree mortality = less water stored in trees and less carbon taken in. both water and carbon cycle affects ecosystems in a negative way.

2. Flooding is a threat to humans and ecosystems as well.
3. carbon cycle changes pose more threats. carbon is the building block of every organism. if change happens, climate change can increase, global sea and land temp will increases and will cause detrimental effects of people and the world.
   decline in ocean health caused by acidification and bleaching is resulting in changes to marine food webs. In particular, fish and crustacean stocks are both declining = less food for people who rely on this. fishing supports 500 million people (Selling, buying and eating)
   tourism also under threat esp where coral reefs, now showing signs of degradation, have traditionally attracted scuba-diving tourists. coral reefs are also a massive carbon store! The rising sea level is yet another consequence of climate change that threatens the very survival of tourism and its coastal infrastructure, as for example the Maldives.