paper 2 human questions

Question 1

For your local place and your contrasting place, evaluate the view that low income is the most important factor leading to deprivation (20)

Answer 1

use comparative language throughout, whenever appropriate
include facts and figures when possible
Signpost at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end
make a comment about “the future” in your conclusion

local- Kidbrooke
contrasting- Blackheath
evaluate - make a decision based on facts
what other factors can lead to deprivation?
deprivation- social and economic.

Introduction:
Define deprivation
background on case studies
To a large extent low income is important, but there are other factors too (education, employment also affect it to roughly the same extent.)

1. To a large extent, low income is an important factor that leads to deprivation
   Low income leads to deprivation in local case study
   Low income in contrasting case study
   Similarly affects deprivation in both
   Signpost: therefore to a large extent, low income is an important factor that leads to deprivation in both case studies
2. To a lesser extent than low income, education can nonetheless also lead to deprivation in (local case study) and (contrasting case study)
   Facts and figures
   Education links to lower income (explain)
   Signpost
3. Employment has a similar impact to education in the local, but a smaller impact in the contrasting case study.
   Differences in employment in each case study and how that has led to deprivation.
   Signpost

Conclusion
To conclude, all have an impact, although low income has a bigger impact. Recap main argument of the last three paragraphs. Education has the same impact in both case studies, while employment has a bigger impact in the local study. How is this going to change in the future? Signpost sentence.

Question 2

Assess the view that TNCs have been the most important mechanism in the acceleration of globalisation. (12)

Answer 2

Globalisation is the increase in interconnectivity of countries through flows of transport trade, labour and information. To a smaller extent TNCs have been a small mechanism in the acceleration of globalisation. To a larger extent, transport and trade have also contributed to the acceleration of globalisation.

To a smaller extent, TNCs contribute to the acceleration of globalisation:
outsourcing - flows of labour, capital and products (eg/ McDonalds/ Starbucks), economic globalisation
westernisation - Starbucks originates in the west and then moves into other countries (mainly the East) Cultural globalisation, social globalisation
lack of flow of people and information, so its quite specific
TNCs rely on trade and transport
Signpost

Trade has a larger impact on globalisation then TNCs but a smaller impact than transport on the acceleration of globalisation:
WTO - liberalised free trade - economic globalisation. governments help aid free trade - political globalisation
trade relies on transport
Signpost

Transport has the largest impact out of all three factors to a large extent.:
jet aircraft (20th century) - social economic globalisation
Steam power - movement of goods and people
Containerisation - economic, political globalisation
Internet (21st Century) flow of information leading to cultural globalisation

Conclusion: To a large extent, transport is the most important factor driving globalisation, because both TNCs and trade rely on it.
Signpost

Question 3

Assess how national governments can influence the rate of globalisation. (12)

Answer 3

intro - national gov: more open to FDI (1978 China open door policy), joining trade blocs. they influence diff types of globalisation including social, cultural, economic and political flows.

1. social flows: connectedness, allows for population to stay in touch. can be done my transportation / internet / social media.
   e. g China banned Facebook & google - limits growth
   e. g Kenya M pesa banking app - allows micro loans for women, 1/3 GDP goes though annually, allows farmers to get prices before selling
2. cultural flows: spreading culture / preventing cultural erosion. can be done via film / music / internet/ food
   e. g USA Hollywood , India Bollywood, Nollywood
   e. g. spread of culture and tradition : Chinese new year annually. in new York , London (china towns)
3. Economic flows ( MOST important) - economic relevance globally, trade blocs (NAFTA, EU, ASEAN) free trade within certain countries. however countries can be excluded from blocs and their development hindered.
   e.g EU moved from trade block to multigovernmental organisation and has one currency and no borders, allows free movement of ppl
   e.g China Open door policy 1978 (open to outside investment mixed economy for free trade markets, now fastest growing economy globally.
   neo liberlisation
   business start ups

WTO - liberalised free trade - economic globalisation. governments help aid free trade - political globalisation

Question 4

Assess the extent to which developments in transport and communication technologies have accelerated globalisation (12)

Answer 4

Globalisation is the increase in interconnectivity of countries through flows of transport, trade, labour and information.
To a larger extent, transport and communication tech have contributed to the acceleration of globalisation. To a smaller extent TNCs have been another mechanism in the acceleration of globalisation.

Transport has the largest impact out of all factors to a large extent
-jet aircraft (20th century) - social economic globalisation
-Steam power - movement of goods and people
-Containerisation - economic, political globalisation
Internet (21st Century) flow of information leading to cultural globalisation

communication - ICT (Information Communication Technology) developments have reduced communication costs and increased global communication flows, since the late 20th century. ​
- Reduced mobile phone costs = more usage and demand
Used in countries with a lack of communications infrastructure. By 2015, 70% of people in Africa owned a mobile phone.
-Close to 50% of the world’s population uses internet.
-social media (Facebook 2006, Instagram 2010, WhatsApp 2010) enabled much cheaper communication between friends and family than landline telephone = has led to space-time compression, where the cost (time or money) of communicating over distance has fallen, people can communicate regardless of distance. 2003 Skype has allowed cheap, face-to-face communication, allowing migrants to maintain stronger bonds with their distant family.
More than 1 million kilometres of flexible undersea cables carry the world’s data.

To a smaller extent, TNCs contribute to the acceleration of globalisation:
outsourcing - flows of labour, capital and products (eg/ McDonalds/ Starbucks), economic globalisation
westernisation - Starbucks originates in the west and then moves into other countries (mainly the East) Cultural globalisation, social globalisation
lack of flow of people and information, so its quite specific
TNCs rely on trade and transport
Signpost

Trade has a larger impact on than TNCs but a smaller impact than transport on the acceleration of globalisation:
WTO - liberalised free trade - economic globalisation. governments help aid free trade - political globalisation
trade relies on transport
Signpost

Conclusion: To a large extent, transport is the most important factor driving globalisation and then communication because TNCs and trade rely on it.
Signpost

Question 5

Assess the significance of IGOs & economic organisations in accelerating globalisation (12)

Answer 5

intro - Globalisation is the increase in interconnectivity of countries through flows of transport trade, labour and information. IGOs have promoted neo-liberal views of development based on the adoption of free trade, privatisation and deregulation of financial markets but also, recent programmes have been aimed at improving environmental quality, health, education and human rights. - very significant in acceleration economic and political globalisation

promotion of free trade policies
and foreign direct investment (FDI)

Organisations have helped to promote free trade and end ‘protectionism’. In the past, many countries protected their own industries and businesses by: demanding taxes / tariffs on imported goods, so making them more expensive than home-produced goods.
Using quotas to limit the volume of imports, protecting home producers from foreign competition. Restricting, or banning, foreign companies from investing in their country.
Protectionism reduces total trade volume, whereas free trade (no taxes, tariffs, or quotas) increases it.

World Bank - role of lending money giving grants to the developing world to fund economic development and reduce poverty.
2014 - $470 million loan Philippines for poverty reduction programme. $70 million grant to the Democratic Republic of Congo for HEP project.
HOWEVER requires recipients to adopt trade liberalisation policies and open up to FDI by removing legal restrictions. It also requires them to adopt structural adjustment programmes to reduce government budget deficits. helped developing countries develop deeper ties to the global economy but been criticised for having policies that put economic development before social development.

The IMF provides loans to countries facing debt. aims to maintain a stable international financial system, and this promotes free trade and globalisation.
HOWEVER IMF has been criticised for promoting a ‘western’ model of economic development that works in the interests of developed countries and their TNCs. Also, Recipients must adopt structural adjustment and trade liberalisation programmes e.g open up to FDI and free trade.

World Trade Organisation (WTO) - international organisation that works to reduce trade barriers & create free trade.
WTO’s ‘most favoured nation’ requires a country to treat all WTO members to the same low barriers as the most favoured.
Mainly benefits developed and emerging countries.
Deals with the flow of goods and services (commodities), not specifically about FDI (financial flow from one country to another for purpose of constructing physical capital, i.e. building a factory in another country.)

however to a smaller extent, transport and communication are also significant in accelerating globalisation.
aircrafts, steam power - movement of goods,
internet, social media, apps
fibre optics - 1m cables underwater carry worlds data

Question 6

Evaluate the extent to which differences in economic activity is reflected through variations in your local & contrasting place (20)

Question 7

Evaluate how external factors have shaped the functional characteristics of your local place (20)]

Answer 7

function: role a place plays for its community/surroundings - can change. e.g. banks, department stores, doctors surgeries

Kidbrooke’s functional changes?

1: firstly agricultural land
2: then had RAF bases
3: then post ww1 homes for heroes (lloyd george) began to make kidbrooke residential
4. Ferrier Estate residential continued until
5. A2 motorway built for connectivity
6. Ferrier estate declined - noise, air pollution
7. more residential of Kidbrooke Village regeneration

kidbrooke always had function of social housing (residential)

connectivity & accessibility to Kidbrooke has changed:
A2 motorway, railway station, close proximity to city airport
DLR, public transport

historical development of social issues in Kidbrooke changed:
agricultural
RAF base
homes for heroes
Ferrier estate: deprived, low income area, high crime
Kidbrooke village: increased affluence, lower crime
(EU accession migration of European migrants before motorway)

role of gov. and other stakeholders: MOST SIGNIFICANT
post ww1 homes for heroes (lloyd george) & Ferrier estate built
Berkeley homes + local gov funds + national gov funds made kidbrooke village £1bn regeneration
local interest groups like Blackheath society influenced the gov to not built the A2 motorway though Blackheath - educated and rich

physical location:
proximity to global hub : London, Canary Wharf (financial capital), close to CBD

Question 8

Evaluate how external factors have shaped the demographic characteristics of your local place (20)

Answer 8

demographic change: characteristics of age, ethnic composition, socio economic background, gentrification, studentification.

kidbrooke demographic changes:

1. increasing population - people lived near London so they were affluent to afford semi detached houses.
2. post WW2 homes for heroes = 400k homes built everyone like it.
3. historical development - migration of eastern European migrants 1972 EU
4. spiral of decline after A2 built. affected poor people more
5. regeneration of kidbrooke village: pricey homes, fast train services = gentrification happening today, affluent young business people attracted to kidbrooke. poorer people pushed out, old people affected by busy area. long term.

63% good health
24% BME
47% level 4 qualifications

Question 9

Evaluate how past and present connections have shaped the social characteristics of your chosen place (20)

Question 10

Evaluate how past and present connections have shaped the economic characteristics of your chosen place (20)

Question 11

Evaluate how regional & national influences have shaped your chosen place (20)

Question 12

Evaluate how economic & social changes have influenced people’s identity (20)

Question 13

Evaluate the extent to which infrastructure investment can regenerate an area (20)

Answer 13

1. improving transport links.
   improves migration and trade link = increases economic productivity. e.g. H2S rail network connect London to Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds. connects poor regions to economic core in London & south east. reduces travel times and increase connectivity. accessibility is key to improving area. north south divide becomes more reduced.
   Also ast Manchester metro link, so city centre more accessible people can work and boost economy, more income coming in.
2. improves built environment
   kidbrooke village - shops, housing, parks built to attract families, young business people for more economic & social growth. lot of green aesthetic space, enjoy leisure time. business owners benefit from more profit. positive long term impact for locals.
   Stratford regeneration of Olympic park - improves social progress, gives positive view to public, more friendly open spaces and improved services. both economy and built environment improved, on the way to sustainability (Egan Wheel factors)
3. however infrastructure can also cause problems.
   A2 motorway in Kidbrooke 1988 caused housing estate to fall into decline because of increased air and noise pollution.
   similarly, many MPS, residents and environmental NGOs oppose 3rd runway in Heathrow, it will increase traffic and pollution, impacts mental and physical health, also larger scale issue of global climate change, adds more co2 emissions, unsustainable.

fracking to become more energy secure, increase jobs and grow economy. This has failed as its unethical, adds to degradation of environment & disturbs public.
Elizabeth line - creates jobs and connects South Est to North West. however increased housing prices in now attractive areas e.g., Woolwich and consequently drives locals out of area, leads to gentrification. decreases quality of life.

to conclude infrastructure investment regenerates an area positively to a much larger extent that it does to ruin an area, the aim of regeneration to improve an area by infrastructure reduces journey times, increases jobs and services and built environment, this can be seen by improvements in the IMD factors and Egan wheel. This overpowers the negative aspects of infrastructure where people are disturbed.

Question 14

Evaluate the role of national governments in promoting growth in an area (20)

Answer 14

intro - role of gov: planning permission, funding schemes in areas (leisure and culture led), sports led promoting growth after events to attract investments.
ability to create growth: economic growth links to social change demographic change / gentrification)

1. planning permission - allow for culture led schemes.
   Kidbrooke ‘Berkley Homes’ will have made billions by the end of the regeneration scheme with the land provided to them cheap due to the principle of planning gain. they have been provided government funding, have built school & doctors surgery.
   social growth : brings change to economic demographic of an area.
2. funding diff. regeneration schemes in areas promote tourist investment via retail led regeneration. the gov can promote investments from public via shopping etc.
   gov is investing £1bn in high street to maintain jobs and prevent growth of online shopping.
   culture le: could argue Boscombe was culture led as area had an coast that made it attractive. gov spent £3bn on artificial reef that failed!
3. promoting growth via external stakeholders: sport led regeneration from externals due to opportunities.
   2012 Olympic games: £13bn invested into national economy and 100k jobs created by govs. role of having games in the UK.
   growth: Stratford had 10k homes built and 3 new schools
4. promoting demographic change (regeneration -> gentrification or changes in economic policy: CBD district
   national policies e.g. deregulation of economy by Thatcher the witch.
   deregulation of banking industry led to FDI and promoted growth of the east end which was suffering from a spiral of decline due to outsourcing.

Question 15

Evaluate the ways in which local governments can create sympathetic environments for investment (20)

Answer 15

science park

Question 16

Evaluate the success of urban regeneration scheme you have studied (20)

Answer 16

kidbrooke?
STRATFORD
glasgow gorbals

Question 17

Evaluate the success of rural regeneration scheme you have studied (20)

Answer 17

cornwall???

eden project

Question 18

Evaluate the factors that might influence the view of different stakeholders’ perception of success (20)

Answer 18

intro: factors- profit of building (planning gain), aiding local area. cost effective/benefits national economy, whether it brings money or business.
stakeholders: business, locals, gov (regional & national), building companies.

1. local businesses : perception of success will be relative to economic investment which follows the regeneration scheme. any scheme that increases their customer base is likely to be supported by the business.
   e. g Boscombe tourism led regeneration. initial success with reef brought back tourists after the area suffered spiral of decline in 1970s as international holidays flourished, however has left many business going bust as surf industry has collapsed again.
2. national and regional government: perception will be based off economic / social success of scheme. Stratford = large success.
   10k new homes (regional gov happy, housing crisis fixed)
   100k new jobs (national gov happy, increases economic output decreasing level of employment)
3. building companies: profit / planning gain (how much they benefit from the project itself economically)
   e. g. kidbrooke: ‘Berkley homes’
   - gov subsided part of the scheme in return for housing.
   - 1000s of home prices over £400k off of cheap land = major profit!

Question 19

Evaluate the effectiveness of geopolitical interventions in defence of human rights (20)

Answer 19

Geopolitical interventions can come in a variety of forms including giving development aid, trade embargoes and military aid and intervention, however although all aim to improve peoples human rights this can often not end up being the case and varies considerably between different regions.

-One of the most common forms of intervention can be that of development aid, which can be through bi-lateral agreements from one country into another or more commonly multi-lateral through IGOs or NGOs. This is usually given to developing countries to help them with development or to help in times of crisis however there are a number of examples where this seems to not improved human rights at all if not actually worsened them. An example of this can be seen in Haiti, a country that has and still does receive a large amount of aid mainly from IGOs such as the IMF. It has received over $12bn in aid for 2010 disaster yet despite this still remains one of the poorest countries with much of the population continuing to live in poverty. only 5bn has been given. also language barrier of red cross helpers wa diffuciult to communicate. also sitll 50k people living in temp. shelters.

However development aid doesnt always reduces human rights. For example large successes can be seen especially in regard to MDGs. For example aid given by the WB into primary education within developing countries and investing in improving maternal health has lead to global reductions by 44% in maternal mortality rates. Also through development aid given by the UN in many African countries has helped prevent malaria deaths by over 6 million, clearly improving peoples human rights as has saved peoples lives and most likely many more into the future.
-This perhaps shows that whether geopolitical interventions are success or not depends greatly on those involved. For example in Haiti the main reason this can be seen to not be successful is due to the strict conditions imposed on it in receiving these loans, as well as a long history of being in a state of debt leading it into a dependency cycle that is hard to get out of. However in countries that receive aid such as for specific things such as education or healthcare, perhaps as these are more short term and are given often without conditions, they are more successful. Also the actual place the aid is going to effects the success, with Haiti having a large history with being corrupt, something that perhaps is the reason conditions have been applied to it.

there is also debates as to whether military action always improves human rights, as often despite the aim being to do this the opposite ends up occurring. For example it cannot be denied that the military action taken in Syria by countries such as uk and US has not improved the human rights of the local civilians, with almost half of the Syrian population being displaced or dead and 7 million now being refugees throughout Europe. enviormental degresdation. comtsmination and heritage sites e.g Aleppo have also been destoryed. assad fired chemical weapons at civillians. HDI decreased from 0.65 to 0.5 in 2018.

however at times it could be said military intervention especially non-military action may help improve them. for example in 2011 the 2nd civil war of the ivory coats specil french military helped defend the president supporters against the 2010 loser preisdent Gbagbo, he and his wife were arrested for war cfimes. ivorcy coast is now stable and president was re elected.

Conclusion- therefore can be seen interventions often do reduced human rights, especially in longer term without any plans in place. But must be said that the location etc of where the intervention takes place is also important in determining this.

Question 20

Evaluate the view that geopolitical interventions are ineffective in defence of human rights (20)

Answer 20

intro- Geopolitical interventions can come in a variety of forms including giving development aid, trade embargoes and military aid and intervention, however although all aim to improve peoples human rights this can often not end up being the case and varies considerably between different regions.

1. one of the most common forms of intervention can be that of development aid, which can be through bi-lateral agreements from one country into another or more commonly multi-lateral through IGOs or NGOs. This is usually given to developing countries to help them with development or to help in times of crisis however there are a number of examples where this seems to not improved human rights at all if not actually worsened them. e.g Haiti, a country that has and still does receive a large amount of aid mainly from IGOs such as the IMF. It has received over $35billion in aid since the 1990s yet despite this still remains one of the poorest countries with much of the population continuing to live in poverty. This is mainly due to much of the aid it receives being tied to loans and given through SAPs. It is now classed as a HIPC yet in order for it to receive these loans and to have its debts cancelled, strict conditions are applied, such as large cuts on public spending + privatising local businesses which are having large impacts on the human rights of the population. e.g. poor infrastructure, health + sanitation and due to so many NGOs now being in the country local businesses cannot compete and so the economy is still not growing with little impact from TNCs. Also from 2015 only 1/2 promised aid has been provided, many aid workers couldn’t speak the language, 500k people are still living in temporary shelters after the 2010 earthquake immediate aid intervention.
2. However it cannot be said that development aid is always ineffective. For example large successes can be seen especially in regard to MDGs. For example aid given by the World Bank into primary education in developing countries and investing in improving maternal health has lead to global reductions by 44% in maternal mortality rates. Also through development aid given by the UN in many African countries has helped prevent malaria deaths by over 6 million, clearly improving peoples human rights as has saved peoples lives and most likely many more into the future.

This perhaps shows that whether geopolitical interventions are success or not depends greatly on those involved. For example in Haiti the main reason this can be seen to not be successful is due to the strict conditions imposed on it in receiving these loans, as well as a long history of being in a state of debt leading it into a dependency cycle that is hard to get out of. However in countries that receive aid such as for specific things such as education or healthcare, perhaps as these are more short term and are given often without conditions, they are more successful. Also the actual place the aid is going to effects the success, with Haiti having a large history with being corrupt, something that perhaps is the reason conditions have been applied to it.

3. There is also debates as to whether military action always improves human rights, as often despite the aim being to do this the opposite ends up occurring. For example it cannot be denied that the military action taken in Syria by countries such as UK and US has not improved the human rights of the local civilians, with almost half of the Syrian population being displaced or dead and 4 million now being refugees throughout Europe.
   However at times it could be said military intervention especially non-military action may help improve them. For example Libya civil war/number of civilian casualties led to UN intervention including no fly zones
   Was successful as Gadafi was killed! however this led to a power vacuum for the Islamic State. dead: 100k. displaced: 645k
   Also in Timor leste the actions of the UK and US with trade/military embargoes and negotiation talks by the UN ensured that Indonesia military withdrew peacefully meaning more deaths were prevented clearly helping the human rights of the population. However again, looking at the long term Timor leste has now been left in poor conditions with little help and so human rights have declined.

Conclusion- therefore can be seen interventions often are effective in defence of human rights, especially in longer term without any plans in place. But must be said that the location etc of where the intervention takes place is also important in determining this.

Question 21

Evaluate the extent which measuring the outcomes of geopolitical interventions are successful (20)

Question 22

Evaluate the extent to which military interventions are effective in defence of human rights (20)

Answer 22

intro - define intervention, types - development aid, disaster aid, trade embargoes, military aid, indirct & direct military aid. although all aim to improve peoples human rights this can often not end up being the case and varies considerably between different regions.

1. military interventions are effective military example in 2011 the 2nd civil war of the ivory coats specil french military helped defend the president supporters against the 2010 loser preisdent Gbagbo, he and his wife were arrested for war cfimes. ivorcy coast is now stable and president was re elected.
   Libya civil war/number of civilian casualties led to UN intervention including no fly zones Was successful as Gadafi was killed! however this led to a power vacuum for the Islamic State. dead: 100k. displaced: 645k
2. not so effective - military action always improves human rights, as often despite the aim being to do this the opposite ends up occurring. For example it cannot be denied that the military action taken in Syria by countries such as uk and US has not improved the human rights of the local civilians, with almost half of the Syrian population being displaced or dead and 7 million now being refugees throughout Europe. enviormental degresdation. comtsmination and heritage sites e.g Aleppo have also been destoryed. assad fired chemical weapons at civillians. HDI decreased from 0.65 to 0.5 in 2018.
   middle east cold war
3. less effective than military aid - devloment / disaster aid
   haiti 2010 earthwauek disaster
   lqnhguage barrier, 12bn aid promised butvonly 5bn given due to corrupt governnce and bribes. 500k still liv in shelter. cholera outbreak = less effective than military interventon long term takes longer to work as its not hard power

conclusion

Question 23

Evaluate the view that non-military interventions have a stronger record of improving human rights and development than military intervention (20)

Answer 23

Development aid takes many forms, from charitable gifts (e.g. hazard relief) from NGOs or governments, to loans that must be paid back.
Human rights are improved in terms of access to healthcare, eradication of poverty, primary education, gender equality and help for those with malaria etc. Development aid often focuses on improving these rights with specifically
targeted projects, e.g.to improve maternal health, or to build schools. Progress towards improving human rights varies between countries because of wealth, conflict, governance, location, trade opportunities, colonial legacy and other factors.
Development aid may come from NGOs, bilateral arrangements or multilateral agencies like the UN, World Bank, or Global Fund who have different priorities.

There may be some who do not benefit from development aid because it does not “trickle down” to those in most need, but is siphoned off to government elites, meaning that human rights for the majority are ignored.
Some states have experienced decreased human rights (e.g. Iraq, Syria) where development aid has not been sufficient to overcome costs of military intervention.

Question 24

Assess the extent to which superpower demands can cause environmental degradation and global warming (12)

Answer 24

To a large extent, superpower demands can cause environmental degradation and global warming. but it can also can cause political and socio - economic challenges to a smaller extent.

1. Global carbon dioxide emissions in 2015: 29% China , 14% USA, 10% EU, 7% India, 5% Russia, 35% Rest of the world. Energy demand will increase by 40% in 2040 compared to 2010. With countries relying heavily on non-renewables, there will be a point where they are no longer available. China accounts for over half of the worlds coal consumption but only 19% of the world’s population. Causes enhanced greenhouse effect leading to higher global sea and land temperatures.
   to combat this, countries have come up with policies and agreements e.g. Paris Agreement 2015. However USA and China are reluctant to set emissions reduction targets, whereas the EU has often led in this regard. EU and US emissions are falling (because of greater efficiency and green policies) but in China emissions are still rising.
   Attitudes to issues such as trade, globalisation and attitudes to the environment differ between countries. The EU has shown itself willing to reduce the global warming threat, but this is less true of the USA and even less so of the emerging powers (China, Russia), which tend to prioritise economic development over environmental protection.

2. rising middle class - Over the next 30-40 years resource demand in the USA/EU is likely to remain static. Most people are already wealthy and their demand for more resources will be met by efficient use of existing resources. In emerging powers, this is not the case. Pressure on resources has a number of causes: increasing population (India, Indonesia & Brazil)
increasing wealth: the global middle class (people earning $10-100 per day) is expected to increase from 2 billion in 2012 to 5 billion by 2030. 
this increases demand for:
Rare earths - 80-90% of global rare earth production is in China - rare earth metals (e.g. Scandium used in electronic, medical and laser devices. 
Food - as China and India develop = increased demand for wheat, rice. Demand for meat, dairy products and sugar will also rise as these countries transition to 'Western' diets.
Oil - in 2015 the USA used 19 million barrels of oil per day, China 12 million and India 4 million. Indian and Chinese demand could reach American levels.
Water - In USA and EU washing machines, dishwashers, a daily shower and swimming pools are common. vast additional water supplies will be needed if emerging countries do it.
the rise of middle-class consumption will affect the physical environment:
more mining, oil drilling and deforestation in the quest to access raw materials, increased carbon emissions from higher energy consumption and more factories, problems disposing of consumer waste in landfill sites, more use of water so more polluted waste water.
High resource consumption (the last stage in Rostow’s Modernisation Model) has caused many environmental problems:
- Urban air quality in emerging power cities is very dangerous due to poor vehicle engines.
- Imports and exports have increased so CO2 has increased through increased transport. This means goods have a larger carbon footprint.
- Deforestation has accelerated as people cut down trees in order to grow crops for food or biofuel.

3. can also lead to socio - economic consequences and political challenges
   The price of key resources rises as higher demand puts pressure on supply
   The availability of resources (non-renewable ones) falls as some supplies are used up.
   contested spheres of influence:
   oil in the Artic is becoming increasingly contested for. 30% of the world’s undiscovered gas and 13% of oil are in the Artic. creates political challenges between countries on who has the right to use these resources. Much of the dispute centres around whether an area of ocean bed is an extension of Russia’s EEZ, or not. Three of the contesting parties, USA, EU and Russia, all have nuclear weapons, which gives them hard power. In 2007, Russia planted their flag on the seabed of the North Pole, which ignited tensions between the countries.
   The risks of environmental disaster from oil spills is high in one of the few remaining pristine ecosystems on the planet also with a large indigenous population (Inuit).
   Russian invaded and took Crimea by force to gain total control of the Russian naval base in Crimea - home to Russia’s Black Sea Fleet
   Russia feared that if Ukraine joined the EU and NATO this strategic base could be lost
   Fearing the loss of land and a port, both physical resources, Russia acted.

to conclude, environmental degradation and global warming will be the main consequence of increasing resource demands. if political conflict happens, this can lead to the degradation of environment e.g. ruined infrastructure, contaminated water and pollution.

Question 25

Assess the extent to which the growth of middle-class consumption in emerging powers has implications for the availability and cost of key resources (12)

Question 26

Assess the extent to which global concerns about the physical environment can be disproportionality influenced by superpower actions (12)

Answer 26

Intro- With increasing concern about the physical environment and the damage to it that is occurring, it can be seen that superpower nations are often turned to. However these concerns are often influenced by their actions too.

1. Due to how large and energy intensive many superpower and emerging power nations are it can be seen that this demand is having a disproportionate effect on resource use and total co2 emissions, both of which are causing concern about the environment.
   For example, China, a country with a rapidly growing economy and manufacturing sector, is now the worlds largest consumer of commodities such as coal, cotton and wheat. Not only is this disproportionate to the rest of the world due to it now consuming more goods than many countries combined, the total emissions it produces is now a third of all emissions produced globally. This shows how significant this rising superpower is in terms of the global concern, as it is unlikely that such concern would even be present if China was contributing to such a large extent. This can then be seen to be contributing to other physical degradation in other parts of the world that physically aren’t even anywhere near China. For example, due to Chinas high demand for natural resources such as steel and copper, it has now moved much of its infrastructure into Africa, with many saying that this has created ‘pollution havens’ in the region. This means China not only itself is adding to the global concerns, but its actions of development into other regions is then exporting further degradation into regions in Africa too. This then further shows just how significant they are.

A further example of superpower nations disproportionately are influencing the physical environment can be seen in other nations such as the USA. Much like china, it consumes a disproportionate amount of goods when compared to the rest of the world. It is the largest consumer of electricity, corn, oil and gas, with not only this reducing the supply of these resources, particularly fossil fuels, these too are adding to co2 emissions. The USA is the second highest co2 emitter, however it could be said that when compared to that of China, this is not as significant. The sheer rate of increase that China now is consuming mainly down to the rapid rise in middle class consumers has meant its rate of co2 emission growth is 5 times that of the global average. It could be said that due to this being an emerging nation, its population are now consuming goods that much of America have been consuming for much longer and perhaps are now beginning to consume less of. For example chinas meat consumption has grown by almost 100% and 50%+ have access to mobile phones, meaning the impact of this on the environment will be great, especially as it has already been declining in health for so many years previously. This could be also therefore said to be a large future concern when considering emerging nations such as china as well as others such as India continue to develop, only increasing in affluence therefore likely to take an even greater proportion of environmental concern especially regard to emissions + consumption.

It must though be identified that due to how much power these superpower nations do hold, and the extent to which they are influencing the environment, they also therefore play a large role in a more positive way through agreements such as that of the Paris Climate change agreement 2015. However this too can be seen to be varied, especially when considering their willingness to act to try and stop it. Although superpower nations such as China and the US agreed to this agreement, legally binding in order to try and cut carbon emissions, this agreement could be said to be of little significance when considering actual action being taken. Due to just how much china consumes, any agreement needs to involve them, however there seems to be little change to its emission output despite it agreeing to a number of targets. This is again an example perhaps of where due to china still being an emerging nation, it does not believe it should have to reduce emissions when so many other powerful nations such as the US and the UK went through very similar industrial periods in the past. The USA can be seen though to now be taking action, investing heavily into renewable energy sources and reducing its total emissions the most out of any nation. However despite this, it may be uncertain as to whether this will continue with the recent election of Trump, climate change denier who is, much like china, more focused on the economy. Although other superpowers such as the EU are much more committed to changing and combatting the environment degradation, with emission targets and plans
it could be argued this is insignificant when the EU compared to the USA and China consumes and produces so much fewer emissions/goods. Without much change from China in particular, it is therefore unlikely that the global concern over the physical environment will actually decrease. Again showing how much of a proportion they take in what Is happening to the world.

Question 27

Assess the extent to which tensions can arise over the acquisition of resources (12)

Answer 27

In a shrinking world, territory, natural resources and intellectual property are becoming increasingly contested issues, contributing significantly to tension between superpowers.

Territory: multiple superpowers aiming to expand their regional/global influence results in contested spaces. $3.37tril total trade passing through South China Sea 201. China created 3.2k acres new land on Spratly Islands, inc. military activity; naval manoeuvres/exercises, constructing military/industrial outposts on artificial islands. US inc. FONOPS for free/open access to Sea. Defence treaty w/ Manila could = serious conflict.
inc. tensions, using military hard power. Combined w/ trade war = potential for flashpoint. No real clear resolution unless one forfeits to the other – 2 emerging/established superpowers, neither wants to look weaker.
E-China Sea diplomatic hotline between China/Japan over Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands = able to resolve tension to a significant extent, however they do not have the relationship China-US does; Japan is a regional power, China is a global superpower competing w/ US. Diplomacy also does not necessarily permanently resolve an inherent territory conflict.

Resources: oil and gas reserves are becoming increasingly contested as unrenewable resources, superpowers such as US and emerging powers such as Russia (which is reliant on natural gas etc. for a lot of its exports/GDP) results in increased tension.
30% of the world’s undiscovered gas and 13% of oil waiting to be found inside the Arctic circle. Moscow is setting up an air defence division, and a coastal missile system in the Arctic Ocean. Shell Oil Company to begin drilling 2009, prospection stopped due to crude oil prices too low. Russia planted flag at the bottom of N-Pole. All the states surrounding the Arctic Ocean are involved in a kind of land grab.
tension as all different nations are asserting a claim to the resources, mostly through UN treaty but Russia is setting up air defence, coastal missile system = elements of hard power, Ukraine demonstrated Russia is not unwilling to use hard tactics = US etc. may not want to provide them the opportunity due to its interests in the region. US TNC has already begun drilling, may start again if oil prices rise.
due to low prices it is relatively unlikely that tension over the Arctic will escalate in the near future, there are more accessible + profitable sources of natural resources.

intellectual properryy:
companies need to lower their prices to compete in China = reduced profit/tax income for base country (ie. Apple/US), spend billions of dollars to address possible infringements. Leads to economic tension, extreme response can further sour relations and perpetuate tension, difficult to resolve. This has been worsened by globalisation = global shift = est. of factories for TNCs = ease of counterfeit manufacturing, access to global fashions/consumer trends, red. transport costs.
5-10% all world trade is fake goods, US est. losing up to $600bil/yr to counterfeit goods, software piracy and the theft of copyrights and trade secrets, up to 750k jobs lost in US.
Beijing thinks all the accusations of forced technology transfer and IP theft are groundless, discrepancy is huge and there is no common understanding on the IPR issue. ZTE, China’s second largest telecommunications equipment maker, was brought to its knees by the Trump administration’s ban on US companies from selling it hi-tech parts or software – failure to protect IPR has had severe consequences on China’s economic development due to US retaliation = inc. tension.
Beijing has committed to enhancing protection of IP by amending its Patent Law. But the implementation of such laws is weak in China, which is governed not by a rule of law but a single political party. Clash of philosophies in economic management, capitalist vs socialist = conflict/ tension is likely to continue as China grows more powerful and US’ power continues to wan.

Conc: most immediate source of tension is contested territory in S-China Sea as poor diplomatic relations (which were able to relatively resolve Japan-China tension in E-China Sea) are exacerbated by IPR tensions and the subsequent trade war it has contributing to igniting. Sources of tension worsen one another, inc. globalised world, shrinking = more pressure for powers to assert their dominance, may worsen in future once natural resources become inc. contested (ex. Arctic).

Question 28

Assess the extent to which spheres of influence can lead to tensions over territory and physical reasons (12)

Answer 28

A sphere of influence is an area or territory beyond a country’s national borders, over which it feels it should have power but without having any formal authority there.
Superpowers and emerging powers need physical resources, especially fossil fuels, minerals and ores. some must be obtained through international trade e.g buying resources at high prices, e.g. in 2008 crude oil was priced at $140 per barrel
trading with unfriendly regimes, or ones that are politically unstable (e.g. Iranian and Iraqi oil)
during conflict, trade routes, and supply is blocked

These factors increase advantage of claiming new territory and its resources. tensions can arise as countries attempt to acquire natural resources, but their ownership is disputed. This can be done in several ways:
invasion and conquest of another country’s territory, which is rare
claiming offshore, undersea resources by extending a country’s EEZ, which is more common
the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), extends 20 miles offshore from a country’s coast, and includes all resources in and under the sea.

Russian annexation of Crimea 2014
Russian invaded and took Crimea by force to gain total control of the Russian naval base in Crimea - home to Russia’s Black Sea Fleet
Russia feared that if Ukraine joined the EU and NATO this strategic base could be lost
Fearing the loss of land and a port, both physical resources, Russia acted.

Arctic oil and gas resources under Arctic Ocean
This area is beyond the EEZ of Canada, the USA, Russia and Denmark
All of these countries have claimed EEZ extensions, which are disputed by others.
Since 2007, military patrols and activity have increased in the Arctic as each country shows how interested it is in the area
Any attempt to drill for oil and gas in the Arctic could become a source of diplomatic/ actual conflict. the risks of environmental disaster from oil spills is high in one of the few remaining pristine ecosystems on the planet also with a large indigenous population (Inuit)
no natural resources are exploited in Antarctica, and few in the Arctic, but in the future this can change if some countries believe they should be exploited. The attitudes of countries may change if resources are depleted elsewhere, leaving only these protected places as sources of minerals and fossil fuels.

Eastern Europe
Eastern European countries joining the EU angered Russia = Russian invasions of parts of Georgia in 2008 and Ukraine in 2014, as well as a build up of NATO armed forces in the Baltic States,

Middle East and Central Asia
Since 2011, Russia has been an active ally of Syria, helping Syrian government fight rebel forces and ISIS. Russia supports Iran, an enemy of US allies Israel and Saudi Arabia. Russia’s increasing involvement in the Middle East makes an already difficult region even more complex.

East China Sea
Strained relations between North Korea (a Chinese ally) and South Korea (a US ally) as North Korea has become a nuclear power. China sees South Korea and Japan (US allies) as economic competitors. All countries have ongoing disputes over islands in the sea.

South China Sea
Numerous disputed islands, claimed by China and US allies the Philippines and Taiwan. China has aggressively pursued a policy of island settlement and artificial island building - then adding military facilities.
The South China Sea is a very tense region. China’s ‘Nine-Dash Line’ and ‘First and Second Island Chain’ policies force it to try and control a large area of ocean south and east of China. The USA has considered this a sphere of influence since the Second World War.

Central America
China has shown increasing interest in funding alternative routes to the Panama Canal between the Atlantic and Pacific. This is an area of traditional US hegemony.

The situations in Ukraine, Georgia and Syria have created refugee crises - in Syria on a huge scale from 2011 to 2017. This shows there are implications for people of contested spheres.

Question 29

Assess the extent to which contested spheres of influences can cause tension between superpowers (12)

Question 30

Assess the impacts of changing relationships between developing nations and superpowers (12)

Answer 30

with emerging powers having an increasing impact on the global system and many experiencing high economic growth, a number of tensions are now arising between themselves, with this having increase impact presently as well as into the future

When assessing the global economic system it can be seen that with the increasing economic centre of gravity shifting eastwards into south east Asia, mainly as a result of the global shift of manufacturing, many of the emerging nations within the region are increasing in economic power, resulting in a number of tensions that although may have historical context, could be argued to be becoming more to the forefront as a result of this shift. One of the key emerging nations in the region is that of China, a country that is keen to maintain its economic growth and going to extreme measures to gain this, leading to a number of conflicts to therefore ensue. One such conflict can be seen with that of China and India, both key players within the emerging nations with a tense relationship based mainly upon securing both territories + resources to hold on to this level of power. The main conflict can be seen to be arising from the border between them, the Himilayas, of which both hold strong military presence in order to hold power over the area and the natural water resources within in. This conflict has then lead to a number of flashpoint moments in recent times, mainly as a result of disputes within the South China Sea with increasing military expansion by both powers, and it is unlikley for this to disappear with China in particular expanding its territory into the area through strategies such as claiming to have an extended EEZ as well as building militray bases upon islands such as the Spratly. This desire for resources and territory from china has also lead to an increasing relationship with nations such as Pakistan, a region that has a very tense relationship with India due to the border within Kashmir, as part of its One Belt road strategy, already planning to invest billions of pounds into Pakistan order to increase trade links/relations, therefore showing how this increasing conflict over power + control is creating such a tense relationship, with this only like to increase as both become increasing global players.

• This role of China extending its trade relations not only within Asia but also into regions such as Africa could then also be said to be causing a change in relations between China and powers such as the US and EU. As china is extending its One belt road strategy this is also going into much of northern africa as well as into western europe, therefore causing a large threat for western nations such as the US that trade may be threatened by chinas extensive expansion of its trade networking. This can be seen to be particularly be true when looking at Chinas trade with africa, already worth over $300 billion with china investing huge amounts of FDI into Africa meaning it could be said that in the future the role of Africa in supplying necessary raw materials for western countries and TNCs may reduce, with africa choosing to trade with China instead. This therefore means relations with China and the west are only likely to increase in tensions, with this already being apparant when looking at the relation between the US and China currently in regard to trade barriers already being put in place, further showing how relations between such powerful nations is only likely to decline further as emerging power china increases its presence on the global stage.
• The Middle East also becoming a heavily volatile region of which both superpower nations + emerging nations are playing a role in. The middle east can be seen to be a heavily contested region for a number of reasons, both politically and culturally, as well as being home to much of the worlds natural resources such as oil and gas meaning many nations want positive relationships in order to gain these, but with this not always being achieved. An example of a existing superpower that struggles to maintain this is the USA, mainly as a result of political tensions with areas such as Israel. Israel is a very contested region due to much of the arab world being opposed to it believing that an area of Palestine should be created instead. As a large supporter of Israel this therefore means the US struggles to gain positive relations in the area, a threat when considering that much of the region contains over 80% of the worlds oil reserves. This can then be seen to be increasing in conflict and tension in regions such as Syria, where although conflict is mainly arising out of cultural tensions between the shia and sunni muslims, this is then further creating challenges for both the US and also emerging nations such as Russia. With the US being a large support of the Sunnis and Russia the shias, and both wanting control of the gas/oil supply in the region, many have therefore argued recent intervention by each into Syria has been as a result of trying to harness this control, creating such high tensions between these powers as well as only heightening the conflict in the middle east. This therefore provides another example of where it could be said that the increasing desire for resources, a key tool for economic growth + so power, is creating such increasingly tense relations to emerge.

Question 31

Assess the view that contrasting cultural ideologies are responsible for tensions in middle east (12)

Answer 31

1. Globally, there are three contrasting cultural ideologies that are responsible to an smaller extent. Western capitalism (EU, North America, South America), the Muslim world (Middle East, North Africa) and Asian. Attitudes to religion, trade, social relations, women, sexuality and the environment differ in all three. This means that geopolitical relationships between them are not always easy. Western world disagrees with sharia law = code of conduct and values incompatible with perceptions of human development widely held in rest of world e.g woman one husband but man four wives, woman can’t drive… most intrusive and strict legal system especially in regard to women & doesn’t rest easy with universal declaration of human rights.
2. to a larger extent resources are responsible for tension. The world economy runs on crude oil. The Middle East contains 60% of oil reserves so no superpower or emerging power can ignore it. increasing resource demands from superpower and emerging countries means more reliance on the middle east for fossil fuels. fossil fuels scarcity and rising prices can cause conflict. although they have fossil fuels they have little water and farmland so territorial conflict likely to happen. food and water scarcity - Yemen famine crisis 2016-present.
   Most Muslim countries are hostile to Israel due to the ongoing conflict between Palestine and Israel; Israel has taken LAND from Palestinians and built settlements which has continued to cause tensions with Muslims around the world. Iran has vowed to destroy it, but the USA is a key ally of Israel.
   to survive, people need resources so this is why this is a bigger factor than ideologies in causing tensions.
3. Religion – Sunni (Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey) and Shia (Iran, Iraq, Lebanon) are fighting against each other and in proxy wars (e.g. Yemen 2015 a civil war which has involved Saudi Arabia directly and the USA indirectly). created a refugee crisis with many people being abandoned and at risk of death. Since 2011, Russia has been an active ally of Syria, helping Syrian government fight rebel forces and ISIS. Russia supports Iran, an enemy of US allies Israel and Saudi Arabia. Russia’s increasing involvement in the Middle East makes an already difficult region even more complex.
4. History – Colonial powers drew up the borders in this area which caused a lot of conflict,
   as borders don’t separate populations of separate communities and cultures. many of the borders just drawn on a map, colonial powers did not think about the different cultures and geography (The Kurdish people (in Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey) are now demanding their own state)

to conclude, other factors are mainly responsible for tensions including resources, history, civil wars due to religion

Question 32

Assess the reasons for ongoing tensions in the Middle East (12)

Answer 32

1. The world economy runs on crude oil. The Middle East contains 60% of oil reserves so no superpower or emerging power can ignore it. increasing resource demands from superpower and emerging countries means more reliance on the middle east for fossil fuels. fossil fuels scarcity and rising prices can cause conflict.
   although they have fossil fuels they have little water and farmland so territorial conflict likely to happen. food and water scarcity - Yemen famine crisis 2016-present
2. Reasons for the Middle East’s conflict include:
   ▪ Religion – Sunni (Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey) and Shia (Iran, Iraq, Lebanon) are fighting against each other and in proxy wars (e.g. Yemen 2015 a civil war which has involved Saudi Arabia directly and the USA indirectly)
   ▪ History – Colonial powers drew up the borders in this area which caused a lot of conflict,
   as borders don’t separate populations of separate communities and cultures. many of the borders just drawn on a map, colonial powers did not think about the different cultures and geography (The Kurdish people (in Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey) are now demanding their own state)
   - Since 2011, the rise of the extremist group IS in Iraq and Syria has created wars, terrorism and a refugee crisis.
   -Most Muslim countries are hostile to Israel due to the ongoing conflict between Palestine and Israel; Israel has taken land from Palestinians and built settlements which has continued to cause tensions with Muslims around the world. Iran has vowed to destroy it, but the USA is a key ally of Israel.
   - governance - new states, democracy weak or non existent, religious and ethnic allegiances stronger than national identity
   - youth - many countries have young populations with high unemployment and low education levels

all of this challenges stability. Russia and China, support Iran within the region. The USA & EU lean to Saudi Arabia. The Saudis and Iranians both see themselves as regional leaders, but relations between them are poor.

3. Globally, there are three contrasting cultural ideologies. Western capitalism (EU, North America, South America), the Muslim world (Middle East, North Africa) and Asian. Attitudes to religion, trade, social relations, women, sexuality and the environment differ in all three. This means that geopolitical relationships between them are not always easy.
   western world disagrees with sharia law = code of conduct and values incompatible with perceptions of human development widely held in rest of world. most intrusive and strict legal system especially in regard to women & doesn’t rest easy with universal declaration of human rights.

to conclude, biggest reasons for tensions in he middle east

Question 33

Asses the view that the search for natural resources by superpowers will be the single most important factor in shaping future relationships. (12)

Answer 33

Other factors:
location of countries
newly emerging players (BRICs)
Change in alliances or agreements.

Natural Resources:
arctic, gas resources (30% of all gas left found there)
increase in population = increase in demand for resources (increase demand for food)
Pressure on fossil fuel reserves leading to a change in energy production (link to the growing middle class - more people will own a car, go traveling etc.)
the growing middle class - greater demand (more demand for water because of common use of dishwashers etc, tin+ copper demand increased as well due to demand for electronic products)

Question 34

Assess how political and geographical spheres of influence can lead to tension amongst superpowers. (12)

Answer 34

To a large extent, geographical spheres of influence can lead to more tension amongst superpowers.
Define Sphere of influence: areas of competition for superpowers and emerging states
Nonetheless, although to a smaller extent, political spheres of influence can also lead to tension amongst superpowers.
Signpost

Example: The Arctic is a geographical sphere of influence - 30% of worlds undiscovered gas reserves found here (worth billions of $)
Russia (2007, Russian flag place on the North Pole), USA and EU all involved - trying to assert dominance over resources found there, which creates tension
Since 2007 military patrols and activity have increased in the Arctic, as each country shows how interested it is in the area, and willing to defend its claims.
Signpost

signpost
Example: Middle-East is a geographical sphere of influence due to the oil reserves that are found there.
Countries competing for oil reserves (Saudi Arabia, Russia USA)
Middle-east has been one of the most unstable regions in the last few decades. Tensions rise with competition over natural fossil fuel resource, especially since fossil fuels are becoming depleted elsewhere.
Signpost

Signpost
Political Sphere of Influence: Russia’s’ Western Border
Russia considers it’s sphere of influence to be parts of eastern Europe (many there have Russian as their fist language). Many of these countries were also formerly in the soviet union, but some of them now wish to join the EU (eg/ Ukraine)
This has lead to tension between Russia and the EU and those countries that Russia is trying to control (Ukraine)
Example: 2014 annexation of Crimea and Russian invasion into Ukraine 2022
Due to the invasion of ukraine, the EU imposed sanctions on Russia, first in 2014 and then again in 2022, increasing the tension between the superpowers.
Therefore, to a large extent, geographical spheres of influence create more tension than political, although they do also contribute to tension between superpowers.