paper 2 human questions Flashcards

Question

Assess the extent to which the growth of middle-class consumption in emerging powers has implications for the availability and cost of key resources (12)

Answer 1

Intro- With increasing concern about the physical environment and the damage to it that is occurring, it can be seen that superpower nations are often turned to. However these concerns are often influenced by their actions too. 1. Due to how large and energy intensive many superpower and emerging power nations are it can be seen that this demand is having a disproportionate effect on resource use and total co2 emissions, both of which are causing concern about the environment. For example, China, a country with a rapidly growing economy and manufacturing sector, is now the worlds largest consumer of commodities such as coal, cotton and wheat. Not only is this disproportionate to the rest of the world due to it now consuming more goods than many countries combined, the total emissions it produces is now a third of all emissions produced globally. This shows how significant this rising superpower is in terms of the global concern, as it is unlikely that such concern would even be present if China was contributing to such a large extent. This can then be seen to be contributing to other physical degradation in other parts of the world that physically aren't even anywhere near China. For example, due to Chinas high demand for natural resources such as steel and copper, it has now moved much of its infrastructure into Africa, with many saying that this has created 'pollution havens' in the region. This means China not only itself is adding to the global concerns, but its actions of development into other regions is then exporting further degradation into regions in Africa too. This then further shows just how significant they are. A further example of superpower nations disproportionately are influencing the physical environment can be seen in other nations such as the USA. Much like china, it consumes a disproportionate amount of goods when compared to the rest of the world. It is the largest consumer of electricity, corn, oil and gas, with not only this reducing the supply of these resources, particularly fossil fuels, these too are adding to co2 emissions. The USA is the second highest co2 emitter, however it could be said that when compared to that of China, this is not as significant. The sheer rate of increase that China now is consuming mainly down to the rapid rise in middle class consumers has meant its rate of co2 emission growth is 5 times that of the global average. It could be said that due to this being an emerging nation, its population are now consuming goods that much of America have been consuming for much longer and perhaps are now beginning to consume less of. For example chinas meat consumption has grown by almost 100% and 50%+ have access to mobile phones, meaning the impact of this on the environment will be great, especially as it has already been declining in health for so many years previously. This could be also therefore said to be a large future concern when considering emerging nations such as china as well as others such as India continue to develop, only increasing in affluence therefore likely to take an even greater proportion of environmental concern especially regard to emissions + consumption. It must though be identified that due to how much power these superpower nations do hold, and the extent to which they are influencing the environment, they also therefore play a large role in a more positive way through agreements such as that of the Paris Climate change agreement 2015. However this too can be seen to be varied, especially when considering their willingness to act to try and stop it. Although superpower nations such as China and the US agreed to this agreement, legally binding in order to try and cut carbon emissions, this agreement could be said to be of little significance when considering actual action being taken. Due to just how much china consumes, any agreement needs to involve them, however there seems to be little change to its emission output despite it agreeing to a number of targets. This is again an example perhaps of where due to china still being an emerging nation, it does not believe it should have to reduce emissions when so many other powerful nations such as the US and the UK went through very similar industrial periods in the past. The USA can be seen though to now be taking action, investing heavily into renewable energy sources and reducing its total emissions the most out of any nation. However despite this, it may be uncertain as to whether this will continue with the recent election of Trump, climate change denier who is, much like china, more focused on the economy. Although other superpowers such as the EU are much more committed to changing and combatting the environment degradation, with emission targets and plans it could be argued this is insignificant when the EU compared to the USA and China consumes and produces so much fewer emissions/goods. Without much change from China in particular, it is therefore unlikely that the global concern over the physical environment will actually decrease. Again showing how much of a proportion they take in what Is happening to the world.

Answer 2

In a shrinking world, territory, natural resources and intellectual property are becoming increasingly contested issues, contributing significantly to tension between superpowers. Territory: multiple superpowers aiming to expand their regional/global influence results in contested spaces. $3.37tril total trade passing through South China Sea 201. China created 3.2k acres new land on Spratly Islands, inc. military activity; naval manoeuvres/exercises, constructing military/industrial outposts on artificial islands. US inc. FONOPS for free/open access to Sea. Defence treaty w/ Manila could = serious conflict. inc. tensions, using military hard power. Combined w/ trade war = potential for flashpoint. No real clear resolution unless one forfeits to the other – 2 emerging/established superpowers, neither wants to look weaker. E-China Sea diplomatic hotline between China/Japan over Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands = able to resolve tension to a significant extent, however they do not have the relationship China-US does; Japan is a regional power, China is a global superpower competing w/ US. Diplomacy also does not necessarily permanently resolve an inherent territory conflict. Resources: oil and gas reserves are becoming increasingly contested as unrenewable resources, superpowers such as US and emerging powers such as Russia (which is reliant on natural gas etc. for a lot of its exports/GDP) results in increased tension. 30% of the world’s undiscovered gas and 13% of oil waiting to be found inside the Arctic circle. Moscow is setting up an air defence division, and a coastal missile system in the Arctic Ocean. Shell Oil Company to begin drilling 2009, prospection stopped due to crude oil prices too low. Russia planted flag at the bottom of N-Pole. All the states surrounding the Arctic Ocean are involved in a kind of land grab. tension as all different nations are asserting a claim to the resources, mostly through UN treaty but Russia is setting up air defence, coastal missile system = elements of hard power, Ukraine demonstrated Russia is not unwilling to use hard tactics = US etc. may not want to provide them the opportunity due to its interests in the region. US TNC has already begun drilling, may start again if oil prices rise. due to low prices it is relatively unlikely that tension over the Arctic will escalate in the near future, there are more accessible + profitable sources of natural resources. intellectual properryy: companies need to lower their prices to compete in China = reduced profit/tax income for base country (ie. Apple/US), spend billions of dollars to address possible infringements. Leads to economic tension, extreme response can further sour relations and perpetuate tension, difficult to resolve. This has been worsened by globalisation = global shift = est. of factories for TNCs = ease of counterfeit manufacturing, access to global fashions/consumer trends, red. transport costs. 5-10% all world trade is fake goods, US est. losing up to $600bil/yr to counterfeit goods, software piracy and the theft of copyrights and trade secrets, up to 750k jobs lost in US. Beijing thinks all the accusations of forced technology transfer and IP theft are groundless, discrepancy is huge and there is no common understanding on the IPR issue. ZTE, China’s second largest telecommunications equipment maker, was brought to its knees by the Trump administration’s ban on US companies from selling it hi-tech parts or software – failure to protect IPR has had severe consequences on China’s economic development due to US retaliation = inc. tension. Beijing has committed to enhancing protection of IP by amending its Patent Law. But the implementation of such laws is weak in China, which is governed not by a rule of law but a single political party. Clash of philosophies in economic management, capitalist vs socialist = conflict/ tension is likely to continue as China grows more powerful and US’ power continues to wan. Conc: most immediate source of tension is contested territory in S-China Sea as poor diplomatic relations (which were able to relatively resolve Japan-China tension in E-China Sea) are exacerbated by IPR tensions and the subsequent trade war it has contributing to igniting. Sources of tension worsen one another, inc. globalised world, shrinking = more pressure for powers to assert their dominance, may worsen in future once natural resources become inc. contested (ex. Arctic).

Answer 3

A sphere of influence is an area or territory beyond a country's national borders, over which it feels it should have power but without having any formal authority there. Superpowers and emerging powers need physical resources, especially fossil fuels, minerals and ores. some must be obtained through international trade e.g buying resources at high prices, e.g. in 2008 crude oil was priced at $140 per barrel trading with unfriendly regimes, or ones that are politically unstable (e.g. Iranian and Iraqi oil) during conflict, trade routes, and supply is blocked These factors increase advantage of claiming new territory and its resources. tensions can arise as countries attempt to acquire natural resources, but their ownership is disputed. This can be done in several ways: invasion and conquest of another country's territory, which is rare claiming offshore, undersea resources by extending a country's EEZ, which is more common the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), extends 20 miles offshore from a country's coast, and includes all resources in and under the sea. Russian annexation of Crimea 2014 Russian invaded and took Crimea by force to gain total control of the Russian naval base in Crimea - home to Russia's Black Sea Fleet Russia feared that if Ukraine joined the EU and NATO this strategic base could be lost Fearing the loss of land and a port, both physical resources, Russia acted. Arctic oil and gas resources under Arctic Ocean This area is beyond the EEZ of Canada, the USA, Russia and Denmark All of these countries have claimed EEZ extensions, which are disputed by others. Since 2007, military patrols and activity have increased in the Arctic as each country shows how interested it is in the area Any attempt to drill for oil and gas in the Arctic could become a source of diplomatic/ actual conflict. the risks of environmental disaster from oil spills is high in one of the few remaining pristine ecosystems on the planet also with a large indigenous population (Inuit) no natural resources are exploited in Antarctica, and few in the Arctic, but in the future this can change if some countries believe they should be exploited. The attitudes of countries may change if resources are depleted elsewhere, leaving only these protected places as sources of minerals and fossil fuels. Eastern Europe Eastern European countries joining the EU angered Russia = Russian invasions of parts of Georgia in 2008 and Ukraine in 2014, as well as a build up of NATO armed forces in the Baltic States, Middle East and Central Asia Since 2011, Russia has been an active ally of Syria, helping Syrian government fight rebel forces and ISIS. Russia supports Iran, an enemy of US allies Israel and Saudi Arabia. Russia's increasing involvement in the Middle East makes an already difficult region even more complex. East China Sea Strained relations between North Korea (a Chinese ally) and South Korea (a US ally) as North Korea has become a nuclear power. China sees South Korea and Japan (US allies) as economic competitors. All countries have ongoing disputes over islands in the sea. South China Sea Numerous disputed islands, claimed by China and US allies the Philippines and Taiwan. China has aggressively pursued a policy of island settlement and artificial island building - then adding military facilities. The South China Sea is a very tense region. China's 'Nine-Dash Line' and 'First and Second Island Chain' policies force it to try and control a large area of ocean south and east of China. The USA has considered this a sphere of influence since the Second World War. Central America China has shown increasing interest in funding alternative routes to the Panama Canal between the Atlantic and Pacific. This is an area of traditional US hegemony. The situations in Ukraine, Georgia and Syria have created refugee crises - in Syria on a huge scale from 2011 to 2017. This shows there are implications for people of contested spheres.

Answer 4

with emerging powers having an increasing impact on the global system and many experiencing high economic growth, a number of tensions are now arising between themselves, with this having increase impact presently as well as into the future When assessing the global economic system it can be seen that with the increasing economic centre of gravity shifting eastwards into south east Asia, mainly as a result of the global shift of manufacturing, many of the emerging nations within the region are increasing in economic power, resulting in a number of tensions that although may have historical context, could be argued to be becoming more to the forefront as a result of this shift. One of the key emerging nations in the region is that of China, a country that is keen to maintain its economic growth and going to extreme measures to gain this, leading to a number of conflicts to therefore ensue. One such conflict can be seen with that of China and India, both key players within the emerging nations with a tense relationship based mainly upon securing both territories + resources to hold on to this level of power. The main conflict can be seen to be arising from the border between them, the Himilayas, of which both hold strong military presence in order to hold power over the area and the natural water resources within in. This conflict has then lead to a number of flashpoint moments in recent times, mainly as a result of disputes within the South China Sea with increasing military expansion by both powers, and it is unlikley for this to disappear with China in particular expanding its territory into the area through strategies such as claiming to have an extended EEZ as well as building militray bases upon islands such as the Spratly. This desire for resources and territory from china has also lead to an increasing relationship with nations such as Pakistan, a region that has a very tense relationship with India due to the border within Kashmir, as part of its One Belt road strategy, already planning to invest billions of pounds into Pakistan order to increase trade links/relations, therefore showing how this increasing conflict over power + control is creating such a tense relationship, with this only like to increase as both become increasing global players. - This role of China extending its trade relations not only within Asia but also into regions such as Africa could then also be said to be causing a change in relations between China and powers such as the US and EU. As china is extending its One belt road strategy this is also going into much of northern africa as well as into western europe, therefore causing a large threat for western nations such as the US that trade may be threatened by chinas extensive expansion of its trade networking. This can be seen to be particularly be true when looking at Chinas trade with africa, already worth over $300 billion with china investing huge amounts of FDI into Africa meaning it could be said that in the future the role of Africa in supplying necessary raw materials for western countries and TNCs may reduce, with africa choosing to trade with China instead. This therefore means relations with China and the west are only likely to increase in tensions, with this already being apparant when looking at the relation between the US and China currently in regard to trade barriers already being put in place, further showing how relations between such powerful nations is only likely to decline further as emerging power china increases its presence on the global stage. - The Middle East also becoming a heavily volatile region of which both superpower nations + emerging nations are playing a role in. The middle east can be seen to be a heavily contested region for a number of reasons, both politically and culturally, as well as being home to much of the worlds natural resources such as oil and gas meaning many nations want positive relationships in order to gain these, but with this not always being achieved. An example of a existing superpower that struggles to maintain this is the USA, mainly as a result of political tensions with areas such as Israel. Israel is a very contested region due to much of the arab world being opposed to it believing that an area of Palestine should be created instead. As a large supporter of Israel this therefore means the US struggles to gain positive relations in the area, a threat when considering that much of the region contains over 80% of the worlds oil reserves. This can then be seen to be increasing in conflict and tension in regions such as Syria, where although conflict is mainly arising out of cultural tensions between the shia and sunni muslims, this is then further creating challenges for both the US and also emerging nations such as Russia. With the US being a large support of the Sunnis and Russia the shias, and both wanting control of the gas/oil supply in the region, many have therefore argued recent intervention by each into Syria has been as a result of trying to harness this control, creating such high tensions between these powers as well as only heightening the conflict in the middle east. This therefore provides another example of where it could be said that the increasing desire for resources, a key tool for economic growth + so power, is creating such increasingly tense relations to emerge.

Answer 5

1. Globally, there are three contrasting cultural ideologies that are responsible to an smaller extent. Western capitalism (EU, North America, South America), the Muslim world (Middle East, North Africa) and Asian. Attitudes to religion, trade, social relations, women, sexuality and the environment differ in all three. This means that geopolitical relationships between them are not always easy. Western world disagrees with sharia law = code of conduct and values incompatible with perceptions of human development widely held in rest of world e.g woman one husband but man four wives, woman can't drive... most intrusive and strict legal system especially in regard to women & doesn't rest easy with universal declaration of human rights. 2. to a larger extent resources are responsible for tension. The world economy runs on crude oil. The Middle East contains 60% of oil reserves so no superpower or emerging power can ignore it. increasing resource demands from superpower and emerging countries means more reliance on the middle east for fossil fuels. fossil fuels scarcity and rising prices can cause conflict. although they have fossil fuels they have little water and farmland so territorial conflict likely to happen. food and water scarcity - Yemen famine crisis 2016-present. Most Muslim countries are hostile to Israel due to the ongoing conflict between Palestine and Israel; Israel has taken LAND from Palestinians and built settlements which has continued to cause tensions with Muslims around the world. Iran has vowed to destroy it, but the USA is a key ally of Israel. to survive, people need resources so this is why this is a bigger factor than ideologies in causing tensions. 3. Religion – Sunni (Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey) and Shia (Iran, Iraq, Lebanon) are fighting against each other and in proxy wars (e.g. Yemen 2015 a civil war which has involved Saudi Arabia directly and the USA indirectly). created a refugee crisis with many people being abandoned and at risk of death. Since 2011, Russia has been an active ally of Syria, helping Syrian government fight rebel forces and ISIS. Russia supports Iran, an enemy of US allies Israel and Saudi Arabia. Russia's increasing involvement in the Middle East makes an already difficult region even more complex. 4. History – Colonial powers drew up the borders in this area which caused a lot of conflict, as borders don’t separate populations of separate communities and cultures. many of the borders just drawn on a map, colonial powers did not think about the different cultures and geography (The Kurdish people (in Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey) are now demanding their own state) to conclude, other factors are mainly responsible for tensions including resources, history, civil wars due to religion

Answer 6

1. The world economy runs on crude oil. The Middle East contains 60% of oil reserves so no superpower or emerging power can ignore it. increasing resource demands from superpower and emerging countries means more reliance on the middle east for fossil fuels. fossil fuels scarcity and rising prices can cause conflict. although they have fossil fuels they have little water and farmland so territorial conflict likely to happen. food and water scarcity - Yemen famine crisis 2016-present 2. Reasons for the Middle East’s conflict include: ▪ Religion – Sunni (Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey) and Shia (Iran, Iraq, Lebanon) are fighting against each other and in proxy wars (e.g. Yemen 2015 a civil war which has involved Saudi Arabia directly and the USA indirectly) ▪ History – Colonial powers drew up the borders in this area which caused a lot of conflict, as borders don’t separate populations of separate communities and cultures. many of the borders just drawn on a map, colonial powers did not think about the different cultures and geography (The Kurdish people (in Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey) are now demanding their own state) - Since 2011, the rise of the extremist group IS in Iraq and Syria has created wars, terrorism and a refugee crisis. -Most Muslim countries are hostile to Israel due to the ongoing conflict between Palestine and Israel; Israel has taken land from Palestinians and built settlements which has continued to cause tensions with Muslims around the world. Iran has vowed to destroy it, but the USA is a key ally of Israel. - governance - new states, democracy weak or non existent, religious and ethnic allegiances stronger than national identity - youth - many countries have young populations with high unemployment and low education levels all of this challenges stability. Russia and China, support Iran within the region. The USA & EU lean to Saudi Arabia. The Saudis and Iranians both see themselves as regional leaders, but relations between them are poor. 3. Globally, there are three contrasting cultural ideologies. Western capitalism (EU, North America, South America), the Muslim world (Middle East, North Africa) and Asian. Attitudes to religion, trade, social relations, women, sexuality and the environment differ in all three. This means that geopolitical relationships between them are not always easy. western world disagrees with sharia law = code of conduct and values incompatible with perceptions of human development widely held in rest of world. most intrusive and strict legal system especially in regard to women & doesn't rest easy with universal declaration of human rights. to conclude, biggest reasons for tensions in he middle east

Answer 7

Other factors: location of countries newly emerging players (BRICs) Change in alliances or agreements. Natural Resources: arctic, gas resources (30% of all gas left found there) increase in population = increase in demand for resources (increase demand for food) Pressure on fossil fuel reserves leading to a change in energy production (link to the growing middle class - more people will own a car, go traveling etc.) the growing middle class - greater demand (more demand for water because of common use of dishwashers etc, tin+ copper demand increased as well due to demand for electronic products)

Answer 8

To a large extent, geographical spheres of influence can lead to more tension amongst superpowers. Define Sphere of influence: areas of competition for superpowers and emerging states Nonetheless, although to a smaller extent, political spheres of influence can also lead to tension amongst superpowers. Signpost Example: The Arctic is a geographical sphere of influence - 30% of worlds undiscovered gas reserves found here (worth billions of $) Russia (2007, Russian flag place on the North Pole), USA and EU all involved - trying to assert dominance over resources found there, which creates tension Since 2007 military patrols and activity have increased in the Arctic, as each country shows how interested it is in the area, and willing to defend its claims. Signpost signpost Example: Middle-East is a geographical sphere of influence due to the oil reserves that are found there. Countries competing for oil reserves (Saudi Arabia, Russia USA) Middle-east has been one of the most unstable regions in the last few decades. Tensions rise with competition over natural fossil fuel resource, especially since fossil fuels are becoming depleted elsewhere. Signpost Signpost Political Sphere of Influence: Russia's' Western Border Russia considers it's sphere of influence to be parts of eastern Europe (many there have Russian as their fist language). Many of these countries were also formerly in the soviet union, but some of them now wish to join the EU (eg/ Ukraine) This has lead to tension between Russia and the EU and those countries that Russia is trying to control (Ukraine) Example: 2014 annexation of Crimea and Russian invasion into Ukraine 2022 Due to the invasion of ukraine, the EU imposed sanctions on Russia, first in 2014 and then again in 2022, increasing the tension between the superpowers. Therefore, to a large extent, geographical spheres of influence create more tension than political, although they do also contribute to tension between superpowers.