Reasoning and decision making. Problem solving and creativity Flashcards
What are the two types of reasoning?
Deductive, inductive.
Inference of a problematic conclusion from available information
inductive reasoning.
correct answer to a logical problem
syllogism
our pre-conceived notions. opinions and prior learning can influence our interpretation and responses to logical statements
true
experiment that indicates how we reason, but also biases therein.
Watson task.
We can use deductive reasoning but we usually don’t
True
this type of reasoning more used in both scientific and everday life.
Inductive reasoning
A situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.
problem
Problem solving, for the Gestalt psychologists, was about
(1)how people represent a problem in their mind and
(2)how solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation.
The process of changing a problem’s representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving.
restructuring
Sudden realization of a problem’s solution.
Insight
Sudden realization of a problem’s solution.
Fixation
An effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function
functional fixedness
A problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. This problem was used to study functional fixedness.
candle problem
A problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness.
two-string problem
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past.
mental set
A problem, first described by Luchins, that illustrates how mental set can influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem.
water jug problem
A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means–end analysis.
Tower of Hanoi problem
In problem solving, the conditions at the beginning of a problem.
initial state
In problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved.
goal state
In problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution.
operators
In problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states.
intermediate state
The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.
problem space
A problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal.
means–end analysis
In the means–end analysis approach to problem solving, intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal.
subgoals
A problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution.
mutilated checkerboard problem
A procedure in which subjects are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem. This procedure is used to help determine people’s thought processes as they are solving a problem.
think-aloud protocol
Making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things.
analogy
The use of analogies as an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem.
analogical problem solving
Transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem.
analogical transfer
A problem to be solved. In analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story.
target problem
A problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem
source problem
A problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. This problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving.
radiation problem
Gick and Holyoak to propose that the process of analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:
Noticing, mapping, applying.
A technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems.
Analogical encoding
A negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B.”
trade-off strategy
A negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens.
contingency strategy
People find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings.
analogical paradox
Observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations
In vivo problem-solving research
Thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential solutions
divergent thinking
When people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship.
group brainstorming
A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.
group brainstorming
Objects created in Finke’s “creative cognition” experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product.
preinventive forms
A problem involving nine dots, arranged in a square pattern, in which the task is to draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracing a line.
nine-dot problem
A procedure for stimulating the brain in which two electrodes, which are connected to a battery-powered device that delivers direct current, are placed on a person’s head.
transcranial direct current stimulation
The phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a “time-out” from working on a problem.
incubation
A task used to assess creativity, in which the person’s task is to think unusual uses for an object. Also called the unusual uses task.
alternate uses task
A brain network that is involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks.
executive control network (ECN)
The act of consciously choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes.
volitional daydreaming
A type of meditation in which the basic procedure is to focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, to bring your attention back to your breath.
focused attention (FA) meditation
A type of meditation that involves paying attention to whatever comes into the mind, and to follow this thought until something else comes along.
open monitoring (OM) meditation
Peter is stuck trying to understand some extraneous information with regards to a math problem, and, as such, he finds it difficult to proceed. Peters appears to be showing ___.
fixation
Soraya is walking her dog when her dog’s leash suddenly breaks. Soraya realizes that she needs a new leash right then and there but, at first, she doesn’t know how to proceed. Unfortunately, she fails to consider that she could fashion a temporary leash by using the shoelaces from her boots. This example specifically illustrates ___.
functional fixedness
Carlos is trying to solve a puzzle. In doing so, he knows that a stipulated rule is that red pieces cannot touch blue pieces. This example specifically highlights the function of ___.
operators
