Long-term memory: structure Flashcards
A memory mechanism that can hold large amounts of information for long periods of time. +_____ is one of the stages in the modal model of memory.
Long-term memory (LTM)
_______ memory covers a span that stretches from about 30 seconds ago to your earliest memories.
Long-term
A classic experiment by B.B. Murdock, Jr. (1962) studied the distinction between STM and LTM by measuring a function called _____?
The serial position curve
In a memory experiment in which participants are asked to recall a list of words, a plot of the percentage of participants remembering each word against the position of that word in the list.
serial position curve
In a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the beginning of the list.
primacy effect
_____ tested this idea that the primacy effect occurs because participants have more time to rehearse words at the beginning of the list.
Dewey Rundus (1971)
primacy effect is related to the ____available for words at the beginning of the list.
longer rehearsal time
In a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the end of the list.
recency effect
in whos experiment :The serial position curve has a normal recency effect when the memory test is immediate , but no recncy effect occurs if the memory test is delayed for 30 seconds
Glanzer and Cunitz’s (1966)
Participant begins recall immediately after hearing the list of words.
Primacy effect and recency effect.
List is presented and participant repeats words out loud in 5-second intervals between words
Words at the beginning of the list are repeated more, so they are more likely to get into LTM.
Participant begins recall after counting backwards for 30 seconds.
Recency effect is eliminated because rehearsal is prevented.
The form in which stimuli are represented in the mind. For example, information can be represented in visual, semantic, and phonological forms.
Coding
coding in the mind in terms of meaning
semantic coding
When information learned previously interferes with learning new information
proactive interference
Wickens et al. (1976) experiment
Proactive interference
A situation in which conditions occur that eliminate or reduce the decrease in performance caused by proactive interference
release from proactive interference
A study by Jacqueline Sachs (1967) demonstrated
semantic coding in LTM.
Identifying a stimulus that was encountered earlier. Stimuli are presented during a study period; later, the same stimuli plus other, new stimuli are presented. The participants’ task is to pick the stimuli that were originally presented.
Recognition memory
A subcortical structure that is important for forming long-term memories, and that also plays a role in remote episodic memories and in short-term storage of novel information.
hippocampus
asked whether the hippocampus, which is crucial for forming new long-term memories, might also play a role in holding information for short periods of time
Charan Ranganath and Mark D’Esposito (2001)
According to ___, the defining property of the experience of episodic memory is that it involves mental time travel
Tulving
According to Tulving, the defining property of the experience of episodic memory, in which a person travels back in time in his or her mind to reexperience events that happened in the past.
mental time travel
In real life, episodic and semantic memories are often intertwined. Two examples are
(1)how knowledge (semantic) affects experience (episodic) and
(2)the makeup of autobiographical memory.
Memory for specific events from a person’s life, which can include both episodic and semantic components.
autobiographical memory
Semantic components of autobiographical memories.
personal semantic memories
Loss of episodic details for memories of long-ago events.
somatization of remote memories
The hypothesis proposed by Schacter and Addis that episodic memories are extracted and recombined to construct simulations of future events.
constructive episodic simulation hypothesis
Memory that involves conscious recollections of events or facts that we have learned in the past.
Explicit memories
Long-term memory can be divided into ____ memory and ____ memory.
explicit, implicit
There are a number of different types of implicit memory. Three of the main types are
procedural memory, priming, and conditioning.
Memory that occurs when an experience affects a person’s behavior, even though the person is not aware that he or she has had the experience.
implicit memories
Memory for how to carry out highly practiced skills. Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory because although people can carry out a skilled behavior, they often cannot explain exactly how they are able to do so.
Procedural memory
Amnesia that occurs because well-learned procedural memories do not require attention.
expert-induced amnesia
A change in response to a stimulus caused by the previous presentation of the same or a similar stimulus
Priming
When an initial presentation of a stimulus affects the person’s response to the same stimulus when it is presented later.
repetition priming
People are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, just because of prior exposure to the statements.
propaganda effect
Classical conditioning occurs when the following two stimuli are paired:
(1) a neutral stimulus that initially does not result in a response and
(2) a conditioning stimulus that does result in a response
Check My Work
Primacy effect is to recency effect as ___ is to ___.
a. beginning; end
b. end; beginning
c. recall; recognition
d. recognition; recall
a. beginning; end
Suppose a subject began recall of a list of words after counting backwards for 30 seconds. What would be the likely consequence of doing this?
The recency effect is eliminated.
There is contemporary research that, in addition to the hippocampus, structures in the ___ lobe may be linked with ___ memory.
b. temporal; long- and short-term
After spending all day at the library, Kathy said, “My brain is stuffed. I can’t study anymore. Nothing I read is sticking.” Kathy is experiencing ________ interference.
proactive
Which stimulus is most likely to be semantically coded?
a. a hot dog
b. a toy dog
c. a photo of a dog
d. a barking dog
d. a barking dog
Identifying voxels in an fMRI scan that light up when a person sees a photo of a particular scene for the first time is an example of ________
physiological coding
Henry Molaison’s inability to form lasting memories was the result of removing which part of his brain?
hippocampus
What criterion did Tulving use to define the difference between semantic memories and episodic memoires?
experience
Ronnie told his friend Sasha, “Last Thursday when it got below freezing and the roads were icy, I went to that new sushi place on Rte 38 for the $12.99 all-you-can-eat special.” Which part of Ronnie’s autobiographical memory is episodic?
I had dinner at the sushi place
Which term best reflects the aspect of memory that people lose with age?
a. experience
b. knowledge
c. sensation
d. semantics
a. experience
Political propaganda is an effective tool to manage and control the public due to the effect of ________.
Priming
how do we measure declarative memory?
Recall and recognition
The process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory.
encoding
The process of remembering information that has been stored in long-term memory.
retrieval
Rehearsal that involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information
maintenance rehearsal
Rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge.
elaborative rehearsal
An early idea linking the type of encoding to retrieval, proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972), is called ____
levels of processing theory
The idea that the processing that occurs as an item is being encoded into memory can be deep or shallow. Deep processing involves attention to meaning and is associated with elaborative rehearsal. Shallow processing involves repetition with little attention to meaning and is associated with maintenance rehearsal
depth of processing
Processing that involves repetition with little attention to meaning. Shallow processing is usually associated with maintenance rehearsal
Shallow processing
The three types of questions were designed to create different levels of processing:
(1)physical features = shallow processing;
(2)rhyming = deeper processing;
(3)fill in the blanks = deepest processing.
Processing that involves attention to meaning and relating an item to something else. Deep processing is usually associated with elaborative rehearsal
Deep processing
A learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, then one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word.
paired-associate learning
Memory for a word is improved by relating the word to the self.
self-reference effect
Memory for material is better when a person generates the material him- or herself, rather than passively receiving it.
generation effect
a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory
retrieval cue
Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.
testing effect
The advantage in performance caused by short study sessions separated by breaks from studying.
spacing effect
A procedure for testing memory in which the participant is asked to remember stimuli that were previously presented.
free recall
A procedure for testing memory in which a participant is presented with cues, such as words or phrases, to aid recall of previously experienced stimuli
cued recall
specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding. These different ways to achieve matching are
(1)encoding specificity—matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur;
(2)state-dependent learning—matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval; and
(3)transfer-appropriate processing—matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval.
The principle that we learn information together with its context. This means that presence of the context can lead to enhanced memory for the information.
encoding specificity
The principle that memory is best when a person is in the same state for encoding and retrieval. This principle is related to encoding specificity.
state-dependent learning
Donald Morris and coworkers (1977) did an experiment that showed that retrieval is better if the same cognitive tasks are involved during both
encoding and retrieval
When the type of task that occurs during encoding matches the type of task that occurs during retrieval. This type of processing can result in enhanced memory.
transfer-appropriate processing
who did an experiment in which two groups of participants learned lists of nonsense syllables.
German psychologists Georg Müller and Alfons Pilzecker
The process that transforms new memories into a state in which they are more resistant to disruption.
consolidation
A process of consolidation that involves structural changes at synapses that happen rapidly, over a period of minutes.
Synaptic consolidation
A consolidation process that involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a long timescale, lasting weeks, months, or even years.
Systems consolidation
The increased firing that occurs in a neuron due to prior activity at the synapse.
long-term potentiation (LTP)
The case of HM, who lost his ability to form new memories after his ___ was removed
hippocampus
Proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, but that once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus.
standard model of consolidation
A process that occurs during memory consolidation, in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory. During reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex. This activity results in the formation of connections between the cortical areas.
reactivation
Loss of memory for something that happened prior to an injury or traumatic event such as a concussion.
retrograde amnesia
When amnesia is most severe for events that occurred just prior to an injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events.
graded amnesia
The idea that the hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories. This contrasts with the standard model of memory, which proposes that the hippocampus is involved only in the retrieval of recent memories.
multiple trace model of consolidation
A procedure for determining the pattern of voxel activation that is elicited by specific stimuli, within various structures.
Multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA)
In multivoxel pattern analysis, the classifier is a computer program designed to recognize patterns of voxel activity.
classifier
Bonnici found that
(1) more information about remote memories compared to recent memories was contained in the prefrontal cortex, and
(2) information about both recent and remote memories was represented throughout the hippocampus, with the posterior hippocampus containing more information about remote memories
A process proposed by Nader and others that occurs when a memory is retrieved and so becomes reactivated. Once this occurs, the memory must be consolidated again, as it was during the initial learning. This repeat consolidation is reconsolidation.
Reconsolidation
Alain Brunet and coworkers (2008) tested the idea that ___ of a memory followed by ___ can help alleviate the symptoms of PTSD
reactivation, reconsolidation
If you have participated in paired-associate learning, then you likely
heard a variety of words paired with other words and had to recall which word was paired with another.
Suppose you do a memory test and hear the words “shy,” “kind,” and “intelligent”—which, coincidentally, also describe your personality. Due to ___ you’d likely have good recall for these words.
the self-reference effect
What is the key distinction between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?
meaning
The sentence “Every good boy deserves fudge” is used by music students to represent notes on the lines of the treble clef. Which concept does this reflect?
retrieval cue
Research based on transfer-appropriate processing provides the LEAST support for ___.
levels of processing theory
According to the standard model of consolidation, activation in the cortex
occurs in a number of different areas.
Due to a car accident, Meg has suffered an injury and now cannot form new memories. As such, it appears that she has ___ amnesia.
anterograde
Ahmad suffered a brain injury where he cannot recall past events that occurred years ago. Based on this information, it would appear that he has ___ amnesia.
retrograde
What is the consequence of injecting a rat with anisomycin?
Doing so inhibits the formation of new memories
Research on consolidation and sleep suggests that recall is best if
one sleeps soon after study and expects to be tested.
Without ________, reconsolidation of a memory would not be possible.
fragility
Mr. Gomez has found that his students’ performance on a unit exam is enhanced by their taking weekly quizzes on content covered in the unit. What method is Mr. Gomez using with his students?
retrieval practice
Research conducted by Bower and Winzenz using paired-associate learning demonstrated the value of using ________ to improve memory.
images
How are creating self-references and forming visual images similar?
They both engage deep processing.
In the context of memory, what distinguishes reconsolidation from consolidation?
modification
The spacing effect would seem to contradict which of the following practices?
cramming for a final exam
Rereading material for a class many times is considered an ineffective study strategy. Rather than learning, this practice simply makes you ________.
fluent
What is the key difference between free recall and cued recall?
hints
Simply highlighting a textbook without later reviewing it is an ineffective study method because the activity is mainly ________.
physical
