Reasoning and decision making. Problem solving and creativity

Question 1

What are the two types of reasoning?

Answer 1

Deductive, inductive.

Question 2

Inference of a problematic conclusion from available information

Answer 2

inductive reasoning.

Question 3

correct answer to a logical problem

Answer 3

syllogism

Question 4

our pre-conceived notions. opinions and prior learning can influence our interpretation and responses to logical statements

Answer 4

true

Question 5

experiment that indicates how we reason, but also biases therein.

Answer 5

Watson task.

Question 6

We can use deductive reasoning but we usually don’t

Answer 6

True

Question 7

this type of reasoning more used in both scientific and everday life.

Answer 7

Inductive reasoning

Question 8

A situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.

Answer 8

problem

Question 9

Problem solving, for the Gestalt psychologists, was about

Answer 9

(1)how people represent a problem in their mind and
(2)how solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation.

Question 10

The process of changing a problem’s representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving.

Answer 10

restructuring

Question 11

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

Answer 11

Insight

Question 13

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

Answer 13

Fixation

Question 14

An effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function

Answer 14

functional fixedness

Question 15

A problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. This problem was used to study functional fixedness.

Answer 15

candle problem

Question 16

A problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness.

Answer 16

two-string problem

Question 17

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past.

Answer 17

mental set

Question 18

A problem, first described by Luchins, that illustrates how mental set can influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem.

Answer 18

water jug problem

Question 19

A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means–end analysis.

Answer 19

Tower of Hanoi problem

Question 20

In problem solving, the conditions at the beginning of a problem.

Answer 20

initial state

Question 21

In problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved.

Answer 21

goal state

Question 22

In problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution.

Answer 22

operators

Question 23

In problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states.

Answer 23

intermediate state

Question 24

The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.

Answer 24

problem space

Question 25

A problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal.

Answer 25

means–end analysis

Question 26

In the means–end analysis approach to problem solving, intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal.

Answer 26

subgoals

Question 27

A problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution.

Answer 27

mutilated checkerboard problem

Question 28

A procedure in which subjects are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem. This procedure is used to help determine people’s thought processes as they are solving a problem.

Answer 28

think-aloud protocol

Question 29

Making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things.

Answer 29

analogy

Question 30

The use of analogies as an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem.

Answer 30

analogical problem solving

Question 31

Transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem.

Answer 31

analogical transfer

Question 32

A problem to be solved. In analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story.

Answer 32

target problem

Question 33

A problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem

Answer 33

source problem

Question 34

A problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. This problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving.

Answer 34

radiation problem

Question 35

Gick and Holyoak to propose that the process of analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

Answer 35

Noticing, mapping, applying.

Question 36

A technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems.

Answer 36

Analogical encoding

Question 37

A negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B.”

Answer 37

trade-off strategy

Question 38

A negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens.

Answer 38

contingency strategy

Question 39

People find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings.

Answer 39

analogical paradox

Question 40

Observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations

Answer 40

In vivo problem-solving research

Question 41

Thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential solutions

Answer 41

divergent thinking

Question 42

When people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship.

Answer 42

group brainstorming

Question 43

A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.

Answer 43

group brainstorming

Question 44

Objects created in Finke’s “creative cognition” experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product.

Answer 44

preinventive forms

Question 45

A problem involving nine dots, arranged in a square pattern, in which the task is to draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracing a line.

Answer 45

nine-dot problem

Question 46

A procedure for stimulating the brain in which two electrodes, which are connected to a battery-powered device that delivers direct current, are placed on a person’s head.

Answer 46

transcranial direct current stimulation

Question 47

The phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a “time-out” from working on a problem.

Answer 47

incubation

Question 48

A task used to assess creativity, in which the person’s task is to think unusual uses for an object. Also called the unusual uses task.

Answer 48

alternate uses task

Question 49

A brain network that is involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks.

Answer 49

executive control network (ECN)

Question 50

The act of consciously choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes.

Answer 50

volitional daydreaming

Question 51

A type of meditation in which the basic procedure is to focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, to bring your attention back to your breath.

Answer 51

focused attention (FA) meditation

Question 52

A type of meditation that involves paying attention to whatever comes into the mind, and to follow this thought until something else comes along.

Answer 52

open monitoring (OM) meditation

Question 53

Peter is stuck trying to understand some extraneous information with regards to a math problem, and, as such, he finds it difficult to proceed. Peters appears to be showing ___.

Answer 53

fixation

Question 54

Soraya is walking her dog when her dog’s leash suddenly breaks. Soraya realizes that she needs a new leash right then and there but, at first, she doesn’t know how to proceed. Unfortunately, she fails to consider that she could fashion a temporary leash by using the shoelaces from her boots. This example specifically illustrates ___.

Answer 54

functional fixedness

Question 55

Carlos is trying to solve a puzzle. In doing so, he knows that a stipulated rule is that red pieces cannot touch blue pieces. This example specifically highlights the function of ___.

Answer 55

operators