Reading Comprehension Flashcards
What are the following markers in passages for?
To a great extent
In general
Broadly speaking
In conclusion/sum/brief
Therefore/thus/so/hence
As a result/Overall
Generalization or conclusion
What are the following markers in passages for?
First, second
To begin with
Next
Finally
Again
Furthermore; for example; Also; In the same way
In other words; That is; Namely; So to speak
Important points or examples
*Think about W HY the author is mentioning these points!
What are the following markers in passages for?
X argues that;
X contends that;
theory
hypothesis
A named person/group holds a specific THEORY or OPINION
What are the following markers in passages for?
Traditionally
For some time
It was once believed
It had been assumed
Now, things are different than the past (contrast coming up soon)
Foreshadowing
What are the following markers in passages for?
Some (people) claim (believe, define, attribute etc.)
It is true that
Acknowledge a valid OPPOSING point
What are the following markers in passages for?
Current theory
Conventional wisdom
New or different theory/idea is COMING UP
Foreshadowing
e.g., current theory is this; here is the new theory/idea
What are the following markers in passages for?
Statement of a problem or question(?)
A possible fix for the problem or answer to the question (if any) is coming up
Foreshadowing
What are the following markers in passages for?
However
Yet
One one hand/on the other hand
While
Rather
Instead
In contrast
Alternatively
Contrasting idea
What are the following markers in passages for?
Granted (even assuming that)
It is true that
Certainly
Admittedly
Despite
Although
Author concedes a point or reluctantly agrees.
What are the following markers in passages for?
Actually
In fact
Indeed
Surprisingly
Unexpected result or phenomena
What are the following markers in passages for?
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
That said
Even so
Assert a different position after conceding a point
What are the following markers in passages for?
Supposedly
It was once thought
Seemingly
For some time
Something appeared to be a certain way, but it wasn’t that way at all.
What type of question is this?
“The author of the passage is primarily concerned with ___”
Main idea of the PASSAGE (primary purpose)
> “author” = PASSAGE
> eliminate answers that refer only to details! (think about what EACH PARAGRAPH TALKS ABOUT, especially first and last ones)
focus on starting VERBS
Pick the answer that relates to the MOST NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS
What type of question is this?
“With which of the following would the author be most likely to agree with?”
Main idea of the PASSAGE (primary purpose)
> eliminate answers that refer only to details!
focus on starting VERBS
WHAT DOES THE PASSAGE SAY (tone of the passage = tone of the author)
What type of question is this?
“Which of the following best describes the relationship of the third paragraph to the passage as a whole?”
Main idea of the PARAGRAPH - Paragraph purpose
> focus on starting VERBS
What type of question is this?
“The author implies which of the following about ___”
“Which of the following is the most likely outcome for ____”
Inference
- Other hint words: infer, suggests, imply
- Inference Qs are a type of SPECIFIC Q that needs SUPPORT
Tip:
> Locate the point in the passage –> the correct answer should be close to that paragraph or sentence.
e.g., Passage states –> many co-wives lead to affluence and power.
Inference –> People with less affluence and power have fewer wives.
What type of question is this?
“According to the passage, which of the following occurs?”
Detail Question
- Type of SPECIFIC Q that needs SUPPORT
Tip:
> Locate the part(s) in the passage that mentions the point
What does “contention” mean?
Can mean a CONFLICT or CLASH
e.g., New discoveries frequently undermine accepted findings (new vs accepted).
What does “myth” mean?
Something people ERRONEOUSLY believe is true, typically without credible evidence.
What type of question is this?
“The passage quotes this person in order to”
IN ORDER TO => Specific Purpose Question
–> determine WHY the author mentions a piece of info.
What does “qualify” mean? (as a verb)
To qualify something means to DIMINISH or LIMIT it
e.g., qualify the main idea ==> diminish/oppose the main idea.
What do you do if you have two answers left and need to pick one?
Compare the WORDS closely - is every word substantiated by the passage?
> go back to the PASSAGE!
e.g., butterfly flight patterns –> passage doesn’t mention flight patterns, just the Butterfly Effect and butterfly flapping its wings.
Insect-eating bats rely heavily on echolocation, a method of sensory perception by which certain animals orient themselves to their surroundings, detect obstacles, communicate with others, and find food. While using echolocation, these bats emit a series of short, high-frequency sounds from their mouths or nostrils that bounce off objects and surfaces and then return to the animals’ ears. Since high-frequency waves do not diffract, or bend, extensively, these ultrasonic vibrations provide bats with accurate maps of their surroundings. The biosonar of some bats is so advanced that it allows them to fly in complete darkness, snatch moving insects out of the air, or hover just above water level to drink.
For years, scientists have been aware that bats emit slightly different frequencies in differing situations. Recent research has provided insight into how certain physical features help bats use this variability to differentiate among objects in their environments. Many species of bats have elaborate, intricately shaped flaps, or noseleaves, around their nostrils that are adorned with grooves and spikes. Three-dimensional computer simulations of these noseleaves revealed that furrows along the top of the noseleaves act as cavities that resonate strongly with certain frequencies of sound. As a result, the grooves cause different frequencies of sound to discharge in different directions. Lower frequency sounds are spread more vertically, while higher frequency sounds emit more horizontally. The complexity the noseleaves add to the bats’ ultrasound perception could help the bats perform difficult tasks, such as locating prey while avoiding obstacles.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the conclusion concerning the purpose of bats’ noseleaves?
(A) The range of frequencies that bats hear is much smaller than the range of frequencies that bats emit.
(B) Many bats emit echolocation sounds through their mouths rather than through their noses.
(C) Dolphins rely on echolocation, and they do not have noseleaves.
(D) When their food sources are stationary, some bats rely on eyesight and smell rather than echolocation.
(E) The sound waves emitted during echolocation are limited to a range of fewer than one hundred feet.
Purpose of noseleaves is to HELP some special species of bats “see” better and “perform difficult paths”
> Recall: Bats emit high frequency waves and then receive them back
A is correct - To weaken the conclusion about the purpose of noseleaves, we must show that they do not necessarily help bats in providing vital info.
NOT B - we don’t care about what “many bats” do - just these special bats with noseleaves.
Excerpt from a passage:
A number of details in the Deeds suggest that Augustus wanted to be remembered as a patriot in the tradition of Cincinnatus. Augustus would have us believe that his political career was driven not by personal ambition, but by a selfless desire to serve Rome and to uphold its ancient liberties and customs. He tells us that his seizure of power was a “liberation from the tyranny of a faction.” After he came to power “by universal consent,” he returned control of the state to the hands of the Roman senate and people. Emphasizing his humility, he lists numerous occasions on which he declined titles, ovations, and triumphs offered him by the senate.
It can be inferred from the passage that in Augustus’s day Cincinnatus was remembered as
A) someone unlikely to put his own interests before those of the state
B) a notably patriotic emperor
C) an intensely ambitious man
D) the founder of the libertarian faction in Roman politics
E) the bravest defender of Rome’s ancient liberties and customs
First line of the paragraph talks about Cincinnatus – basically says that Augustus wanted to be remembered as SOMEONE LIKE CINCINNATUS (“in the tradition of Cincinnatus”)
Question therefore asked back when Augustus was alive, who was Cincinnatus remembered as?
The subsequent sentences explain the characteristics Cincinnatus possessed/Augustus desired to be remembered for –> selfless desire to serve Rome, not personal ambitions, humility.
A is correct
Other answers are wrong
> No evidence that Cincinnatus was an EMPEROR
> Not intensely ambitious man (Direct Contradiction)
> No evidence that Cincinnatus was the FOUNDER of the libertarian faction in Rome politics
> No evidence that Cincinnatus was regarded as the BRAVEST defender of Rome’s ancient liberties and customs.
n the year of his death, Augustus Caesar completed an account of his life called Deeds of the Divine Augustus. It consists of thirty-five numbered sections, each of which records his achievements in a particular field. The first two sections, for instance, describe his role in the civil war that followed Julius Caesar’s death, while section twenty-eight enumerates the colonies he founded for his soldiers. Augustus left instructions that the Deeds be inscribed on two bronze pillars in Rome, as well as on monuments and temples throughout the empire. Clearly, Augustus intended the Deeds to mold his image for posterity.
A number of details in the Deeds suggest that Augustus wanted to be remembered as a patriot in the tradition of Cincinnatus. Augustus would have us believe that his political career was driven not by personal ambition, but by a selfless desire to serve Rome and to uphold its ancient liberties and customs. He tells us that his seizure of power was a “liberation from the tyranny of a faction.” After he came to power “by universal consent,” he returned control of the state to the hands of the Roman senate and people. Emphasizing his humility, he lists numerous occasions on which he declined titles, ovations, and triumphs offered him by the senate.
Few historians accept Augustus’s account of his political motivation. Mark Antony’s faction was not particularly tyrannical, and Augustus’s seizure of power appears to have been motivated mainly by opportunism. In Gibbon’s persuasive analysis, Augustus’s subsequent restoration of the outward forms of republican government was designed to lend political legitimacy to what was essentially a dictatorship. Augustus’s refusal of numerous honors appears to have been part of this same political stagecraft. According to Suetonius, the senate felt obliged to offer Augustus a steady stream of honors. Augustus accepted a great many of these, including the titles of “First Citizen” and “Father of the Country,” but refused enough to maintain the appearance of humility.
According to the passage, which of the following is an assertion made in the Deeds?
A) Augustus was victorious in the civil war that followed Julius Caesar’s death.
B) The example of Cincinnatus was an inspiration to Augustus in times of conflict.
C) Augustus’s restoration of republican forms gave political legitimacy to his regime.
D) Augustus brought freedom to Rome.
E) Augustus accepted the title of “First Citizen” in a spirit of humility.
RECALL WHAT THE DEEDS said about Augustus –> painted him in a very good light
A - no evidence
B - no evidence that Cincinnatus was an inspiration to him during times of conflict
C - NO - the passage does not tell us whether a similar assertion is made in the Deeds. For all we know, the Deeds may not mention the concept of political legitimacy.
D - Yes - only answer that paints Augustus in a good light (“liberation from the tyranny of a faction”) –> also in quotation marks (quoting the Deed!)
E - not correct factually in the passage (not in the spirit of humility)
In recent years, a class of drugs known as COX-2 inhibitors has gotten much publicity for the drugs’ power to relieve inflammation and pain. These drugs are relatively new to the pharmaceutical industry, their mechanisms of action having been discovered only in 1971. That year, John Vane discovered the relationship between nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin, and a group of molecules, called prostaglandins, responsible for producing the sensation of pain in the human body, among other functions.
Prostaglandins were first discovered in the 1930s and are now known to be generated by most mammalian tissues in response to external stimuli. Unlike classical hormones that are synthesized in one tissue but act on a distant one, prostaglandins act on the cells that produce them or on cells located close to the prostaglandins’ cells of origin. Aspirin alleviates pain by inhibiting the function of an enzyme called cyclooxygenase or COX; this inhibition prevents the production of prostaglandins. The three forms of this enzyme, COX-1, COX-2, and COX-3, all stimulate the production of prostaglandins, but each serves a different purpose. COX-1 functions to protect the stomach from irritating gastric acids. COX-2 functions to induce inflammation in injured tissue and COX-3 functions to control the sensation of pain. Aspirin and other similar drugs, such as naproxen, inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2, sometimes producing or aggravating stomach ulcers in patients who take them.
In order to eliminate the side effects of aspirin and related drugs, several pharmaceutical companies in the 1990s developed drugs that inhibited only COX-2. However, side effects almost always cropped up, even after clinical trials that seemed to indicate none. This often occurs because trials are conducted within very limited parameters; once the drug has been approved for mass distribution, however, the number of people taking it and the length of time that it is taken increase dramatically. Several COX-2 drugs that have been popular in recent years fit this pattern: initially successful in clinical trials, subsequent studies showed them to have serious, potentially lethal side effects.
According to the passage, all the of the following are true of prostaglandins EXCEPT:
A. They were discovered in the 1930s.
B. They are generated by most mammalian tissues.
C. They produce the sensation of pain in the body, but are also responsible for other bodily functions.
D. They cause side effects that clinical trials failed to detect.
E. Their production is affected by enzymes COX-1, COX- 2, and COX-3.
Specific Detail –> need support FROM THE PASSAGE
A - They were discovered in the 1930s.
True - “Prostaglandins were first discovered in the 1930s”
B - They are generated by most mammalian tissues.
True - “Prostaglandins… are now known to be generated by most mammalian tissues in response to external stimuli.”
C - They produce the sensation of pain in the body, but are also responsible for other bodily functions.
THIS IS TRUE: “…prostaglandins, responsible for producing the sensation of pain in the human body, among other functions.”
D - They cause side effects that clinical trials failed to detect.
FALSE - COX-2 inhibiter drugs produced side effects, NOT prostaglandins
- Error - Not Quite Right / Mix Up
E - Their production is affected by enzymes COX-1, COX- 2, and COX-3.
True - “Inhibiting the function of an enzyme called cyclooxygenase or COX; this inhibition PREVENTS the production of prostaglandins”
In recent years, a class of drugs known as COX-2 inhibitors has gotten much publicity for the drugs’ power to relieve inflammation and pain. These drugs are relatively new to the pharmaceutical industry, their mechanisms of action having been discovered only in 1971. That year, John Vane discovered the relationship between nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin, and a group of molecules, called prostaglandins, responsible for producing the sensation of pain in the human body, among other functions.
Prostaglandins were first discovered in the 1930s and are now known to be generated by most mammalian tissues in response to external stimuli. Unlike classical hormones that are synthesized in one tissue but act on a distant one, prostaglandins act on the cells that produce them or on cells located close to the prostaglandins’ cells of origin. Aspirin alleviates pain by inhibiting the function of an enzyme called cyclooxygenase or COX; this inhibition prevents the production of prostaglandins. The three forms of this enzyme, COX-1, COX-2, and COX-3, all stimulate the production of prostaglandins, but each serves a different purpose. COX-1 functions to protect the stomach from irritating gastric acids. COX-2 functions to induce inflammation in injured tissue and COX-3 functions to control the sensation of pain. Aspirin and other similar drugs, such as naproxen, inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2, sometimes producing or aggravating stomach ulcers in patients who take them.
In order to eliminate the side effects of aspirin and related drugs, several pharmaceutical companies in the 1990s developed drugs that inhibited only COX-2. However, side effects almost always cropped up, even after clinical trials that seemed to indicate none. This often occurs because trials are conducted within very limited parameters; once the drug has been approved for mass distribution, however, the number of people taking it and the length of time that it is taken increase dramatically. Several COX-2 drugs that have been popular in recent years fit this pattern: initially successful in clinical trials, subsequent studies showed them to have serious, potentially lethal side effects.
The passage suggest which the following about COX- 2 inhibitors?
A. They fail to protect the stomach from gastric acids that can cause irritation, but protect the body from tissue inflammation.
B. They produce similar side effects as those caused by Naproxen.
C. They were introduced approximately 20 years after the relationship between aspirin and prostaglandins was discovered.
D. They stimulate production of prostaglandins that cause tissue inflammation.
E. They are generated by external stimuli and act on the cells that produce them.
PAY ATTENTION TO THE QUESTION: COX-2 INHIBITORS (drug), NOT the enzyme!!!
A. They fail to protect the stomach from gastric acids that can cause irritation, but protect the body from tissue inflammation.
> No
> Cox-2 inhibitors do not inhibit cox-1 enzyme, so they do still protect the stomach from gastric acids
B. They produce similar side effects as those caused by Naproxen.
> NO
> Naproxen is like aspirin
> Both inhibit COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes, whereas COX-2 inhibitors only inhibit COX-2
> “In order to eliminate the side effects of aspirin and related drugs”
C. They were introduced approximately 20 years after the relationship between aspirin and prostaglandins was discovered.
> TRUE
> Cox-2 inhibitors were developed in 1990s
> The “RELATIONSHIP” between aspirin and prostaglandins were discovered by John Vane in 1971
D. They stimulate production of prostaglandins that cause tissue inflammation.
> NOT TRUE –> Cox-2 enzyme
E. They are generated by external stimuli and act on the cells that produce them.
> No - prostaglandins
RC
Common wrong answer choices
- Incorrect inferences about Quantities (the “most”, “more”)
- Incorrect inferences about Location (“only place”)
- Strong wording (incapable, only, must, most important cause)
Pay attention to FIRST VERB (i.e., purpose questions - argue, compare, describe)
Unassailable meaning
Invincible
Tone questions tips
Observe the CONNOTATION of key words in the sentence AND PASSAGE (where ever the highlighted word is mentioned)
> “even” - surprising, maybe even unlikely
Pre-think what the tone is!
Define what each word in the answer choices means
> “critical” means the author uses pretty harsh words (e.g., “penny-pinching, mechanistic culture”, “fell under the spell”)
> “qualified” means the author LIMITS his/her feelings toward something with a caveat of some sort
> “Unqualified” means unconditional/unlimiting
> Realistic, indifferent, analytical, objective = neutral tone (kind of like an academic paper)
> “noncommittal” - equivocal, unrevealing
> “complex” = comprised of multiple parts
> “abstract” = unclear or vague
BE WARE OF EXTREME TERMS:
> “completely neutral”
Hard sentence:
If a company is already effectively on a par with its competitors because it provides service that avoids a damaging reputation and keeps customers from leaving at an unacceptable rate, then investment in higher service levels may be wasted, since service is a deciding factor for customers only in extreme situations.
If a company is competitive with other competitors because its service does not damage its reputation and it RETAINS CUSTOMERS AT AN ACCEPTABLE RATE / KEEPS CUSTOMERS FROM LEAVING AT AN UNACCEPTABLE RATE, then investment in higher service levels may be a waste; service quality is NOT an area of differentiation for most customers.
Derision meaning
Mockery
Scornful
Provenance meaning
Place of origin
The author “anticipates” which of the following as a possible OBJECTION to her argument?
> What should you be on the look out for?
Look out for sentences in which the author ACKNOWLEDGES something SURPRISING and then RESPONDS TO IT with further explanation
e.g., “It is perhaps surprising to argue that an employed population could be enticed to move, but an explanation lies in the labor conditions then prevalent in the South….”
Give way meaning
Surrender, yield
Conjecture meaning
Opinion, guess or conclusion formed on incomplete information
Denunciatory meaning
Containing a warning of PUNISHMENT; condemn something
Pernicious meaning
Harmful
