RC v2 Flashcards
Notes to read about reading comprehension passages
> Behind every RC passage is a SIMPLE STORY –> as you read, try to understand what the simple story is after the first read
Passages will contain theories / opinions / viewpoints, as well as evidence to back those theories / opinions / viewpoints
Passages will also contain descriptions and explanations
Overall strategy for solving:
> Goal is to read at a PACE that allows for FULL COMPREHENSION THE FIRST TIME (of MAIN POINTS) –> word by word, sentence by sentence, and paragraph by paragraph
> But you do NOT need to fully capture / memorize all the details in the passage
> GET excited about reading every passage REGARDLESS of the subject matter
> It is helpful to VISUALIZE WHAT YOU READ to help make things clear
> Take intelligent, strategic notes that are OF SUBSTANCE TO YOU (just enough to have DEEP UNDERSTANDING of passage, but not so much time that you burn time unnecessarily) —> Note: I have found that there isn’t really a need to take notes if you comprehend well the first time and refer back to the passage
> TTP recommends against reading the very first passage question in order to remove conscious and unconscious bias
What type of question is this?
“The passage is primarily concerned with”
“The main purpose of the passage is to”
“What would be the most accurate title for this passage”
“What is the author’s main conclusion in this passage”
Primary Purpose Qs
Asks: what is the AUTHOR’S MAIN REASON / MAIN IDEA for writing the passage
Strategy for solving:
1) Passage itself
> Understand the SIMPLE STORY
> Is the passage descriptive or argumentative? **
> Does the AUTHOR have a POV (argumentative)? Is this perspective neutral, positive or negative? Or is the AUTHOR just comparing differing perspectives (descriptive like discussing)?
> Main idea spans the ENTIRE passage (not just one paragraph) –> CANNOT BE SOMETHING TOO NARROW
> What is the CONCLUSION? Think about the structural MARKERS
> does the passage fall into a common structure type
Tips:
> Typically first two sentences of para 1 and first sentence of subsequent paragraphs can give a good indication of the author’s main idea
> Opinions and especially contrasting opinions also help point to the main idea (“clearly”, “contend”, “argue that”, “believe”, “should”, “however”, “although”, “but”) –> pay close attention to the AUTHOR’S opinion (vs quoting opinions of others who may be arguing)
> Strong language in the passage / contrasts can be an indicator of a main point (e.g., “a more convincing explanation”)
> Conclusions stated by a passage are always CONNECTED to the primary purpose and the last conclusion is likely resembling the main idea (“thus”, “in conclusion”, “in essence”)
> Cause-and-effect markers (“attributed to”, “caused by”, “led to”) are also often connected to the primary purpose
> Rhetorical questions are also closely connected to the primary purpose
2) Answer choices:
> Pay attention to the verbs used in the answer choices –> Argumentative vs descriptive passages should match argumentative vs descriptive verbs
(but must consider verbs IN THE CONTEXTS of the sentences; also consider what is the AUTHOR’S VIEWPOINT vs other perspectives quoted) **
> Do not CONFUSE the author’s opinion with SOMEONE ELSE’S OPINION
Primary Purpose: RC verbs
Argumentative vs descriptive verbs
Present = describe = discuss = illustrate = explain = examine = identify = explore = COMPARE = CONTRAST = CITE = PROVIDE AN EXAMPLE —> Descriptive verbs
» COMPARE = X does A, and Y does B … (be strict here with definition; just because two things show up in the same passage does NOT mean there is a comparison; could just be presenting evidence)
Demonstrate = prove = argue = challenge = contend = suggest = advocate = propose = support = question = refute = correct —> Argumentative verbs
> RECONCILE
Be ware that verbs must be considered in the contexts of the choices in which they appear
e.g., “Discussing reasons why a strategy is likely to be effective” is essentially the same as “demonstrating why a strategy is likely to be effective”
*** EVALUATE = have an opinion on what’s right or wrong / good or bad etc. (judgement is involved) –> discussing for the purpose of coming to a judgement
> contrast with merely DESCRIBING something e.g., how it works
When GMAT says “refute” in an answer choice, what does that mean?
“Refuting an argument” means presenting evidence AGAINST an argument
so if an argument is how absolutism is necessary to maintain order and security, a refutation would say how absolutism is not necessary to maintain order and security
Types of structural markers
Contrast - On the contrary, then again, despite, however, conversely, NEVERTHELESS (while the above statements are true, the following is ALSO TRUE)
> ideas are going in DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS
Agreement - similarly, likewise, not only…but also, in fact
Support - For instance, in particular, in fact, due to, BECAUSE, SINCE, ASSUMING, AFTER ALL, GIVEN THAT, …
> usually will support the preceding sentence
> can be followed by additional point markers
Causation (what are the causes) - because, due to, explanation for, explained by, resulted from, as a result, consequently, reason for, thus, attributed to
Opinion - argue that, assert, BELIEVE, claim, contend, opinion, propose, CLEARLY, SHOULD
Conclusion - in any event, all things considered, all in all, by and large …
Look above (when you see these markers, you likely will need to refer to the sentences PRECEDING the sentence) - these X, this X, those X, such X, for example, also
Rhetorical question (the answer that follows the question will be a key point that is strongly connected to the primary purpose of the passage)
Myth (widely held view that will be discussed, called into question, or disputed) - widely held view, common belief, common perception, prevalent perception, many believe…
> often to introduce the main idea
Extreme (in passage OR answer choices) - all, none, only, most, least, best, worst, ALWAYS, never, impossible, EVERY
> helpful when comparing answer choices
Qualifier - can, may, could, perhaps, possible, probably, likely, some, sometimes, generally, typically, normally, usually, often
> helpful when comparing answer choices
THE PURPOSE of markers is to develop an UNDERSTANDING of what’s going on around the marker
What type of question is this?
“Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?”
“Which of the following best describes the structure of the passage?”
“Which of the following best describes the relationship between the second and third paragraphs of the passage?”
“The second paragraph of the passage proceeds in which of the following ways?”
Structure questions (about PARAGRAPHS that make up the passage)
Strategy for solving:
1) Identify and understand structural MARKERS (e.g., “nevertheless = even if the above is true…)
2) Identify common passage structures …
A) Passage presents MULTIPLE VIEWS, compares and contrasts the views, reconciles the views, or presents the author’s own view
B) Passage presents MULTIPLE METHODS OR STRATEGIES then states CONCLUSIONS about those methods or strategies
C) Passage outlines an EXPERIMENT and discusses the conclusion based on the results
D) Passage proposes a QUESTION and explores information that helps with answering the question
E) Passage presents HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS and states author’s view on those developments
F) Passage presents ONE OR MORE INNOVATIONS, products, or PHENOMENA and then describes the EFFECTS/CONSEQUENCES associated with what has been presented
Trap answers for main idea (primary purpose) questions
Trap answers:
> Too narrow answer choices (i.e., describe only a small portion of the passage)
– Mentioned frequently but not main idea (could just be supporting main idea)
> Misleading answer choices
– Wrong verb in answer choice
– Distortion of primary purpose because of specific nouns / modifiers (answer choice sounds close but not quite right) –> THE WHOLE SENTENCE NEEDS TO BE RIGHT
– Half Right (still wrong) —> WHOLE SENTENCE NEEDS TO BE RIGHT
– Opposite choices
> Stretch choice (goes too far)
Other things to keep in mind:
> Be comfortable with answers that are WRITTEN in ways that are different from what you expect (e.g., “development” can match “recent discovery of evidence”) –> as long as meaning is not distorted
> if you are struggling to find the primary purpose (i.e., descriptive passages), think instead of what are the IMPORTANT POINTS in the passage
Trap answers for structure questions
Trap answers: (very similar to primary purpose Qs)
> Wrong VERBS in answer choice (ALL verbs must be correct -> READ CAREFULLY)
> Distortion (verbs, nouns, modifiers) –>NEED to be VERY CAREFUL with wording of the ENTIRE answer choice
> Half right (still wrong)
> Stretch choice (goes too far) –> watch out for extreme markers
> Opposite answer
What type of question is this?
“Which of the following best describes the function of the first sentence of the second paragraph?”
“The last sentence of the passage serves primarily to”
“Which of the following best describes the function of the highlighted sentence?”
“The author mentions ____ most probably in order to”
“It can be inferred that the author of the passage discusses ___ primarily in order to”
“The author refers to ___ in the highlighted text most probably in order to”
** Specific Purpose (of a SENTENCE or WORD/QUOTE/PHRASE) // ROLE of a sentence
> “Function of”
> “In order to”
Strategy for solving:
> Reread the specified sentence as well as sentences AROUND the specified sentence for context
> Notice any structural markers (e.g., contrast, look above, support)
> MATCH passage with answer choices
Make sure you understand the FOCUS of the question AND ANSWER the QUESTION (what is the PURPOSE of the part of the passage, NOT just describing the part of the passage itself)
e.g., some answer choices are tempting because they technically are true, but DO NOT answer the question —> Trap called “matches, BUT incorrect”
e.g., if the focus shows up as SUPPORT –> find the CONCLUSION and make sure the answer supports this conclusion
REVIEW COMMON WRONG ANSWERS WHEN YOU GET TTP
What type of question is this?
“The author’s attitude towards Jane Goodall’s discoveries could be best characterized as which of the following”
“The author’s attitude towards the practice of Reiki could be best described as…”
Author’s opinion and tone ===> “author’s attitude”
> Need to DECODE the AUTHOR’S word choices to assess what the AUTHOR BELIEVES IN / FEELS about something (the QUESTION will SPECIFY THE SUBJECT MATTER)**
> Author’s tone is always indicative of the passage’s main idea
> don’t confuse other people’s perspective (e.g., critics) with author’s perspective
Author’s TONE = his or her EMOTION, feeling, and sentiments toward the topic under discussion = ATTITUDE towards the SUBJECT MATTER in the passage
Strategy for solving:
> Ask yourself questions…
– how does the author FEEL about the SUBJECT MATTER in the passage?
– is he or she IN FAVOR of the points presented? Against? Or Neutral?
– Is he or she: Indifferent, hopeful, pessimistic, unconvinced, critical, skeptical, doubtful, in agreement, in disagreement, or argumentative?
– Does the author have strong opinions on the information being presented or is he or she making an objective comment?
– if the author is making an argument, how strong is his or her conviction in that position?
> Notice TONE CLUES (positive / negative / neutral connotations of WORDS used) –> ideally do not rely on structural markers for tone (e.g., agreement markers could be NEUTRAL vs positive)
——> are there any words / phrases of excitement, praise, or overt happiness? are there any words that would express criticism, skepticism, or disagreement? If not, more likely to be NEUTRAL
> Assess answer choices and KNOW WHAT EACH MEANS
– Neutral = neither positive nor negative overall ** (OBJECTIVE, stating FACTS, NO OPINION ON SUBJECT)
– Critical = negative or disapproving
– Skeptical = doubtful, with reservations
– Enthusiastic = positive
– Ambivalent = mixed feelings, conflicting ideas, uncertain *** (does NOT mean NEUTRAL)
– Tentative / qualified = slightly weakened view (“research suggest” INSTEAD of saying “research confirms”)
There are also different degrees of positivity vs criticality
> contrast “whole-heartedly enthusiastic” (“beyond doubt”, “confirms”, “surely” = GUARANTEED tone, no mistake) with “mildly positive” (at least somewhat positive, some shortcomings // language more mild like “suggests”)
Keep in mind:
> GMAT RC passages will generally be reserved, measured, and well-reasoned tone and will present opinions in BALANCED WAYS (not too pointed)
SEE RC DECK
What type of question is this?
“The information in the passage suggests that the author would agree with which of the following statements about Jane Goodall’s work?
“It can be inferred from the passage that a nation primarily influenced by Lutheranism would have which of the following characteristics?”
“The passage suggests that John Calvin would have disapproved of a society organized in which of the following ways?”
Testing ability to keep ALL VIEWPOINTS straight (sub-question of Tone)
> not just author’s attitude, but also attitude of others mentioned in the passage
What type of question is this?
“According to the passage, each of the following is true of pangolins EXCEPT”
“The author indicates which of the following about the long migration of a group of elephants?”
“According to the “theory” mentioned in the third paragraph of the passage, asset prices are least rational when”
“The author would be most likely to agree with which of the following about the effects of surface topography on earthquake impact?”
Detail Qs –> testing about a SPECIFIC DETAIL of a passage, what’s true and not true ===> “according to the passage”, “true”, “author would be most likely to agree with”
> DO NOT focus on memorizing details when you read the passage; instead focus on understanding the SIMPLE STORY, Author’s TONE, and passage STRUCTURE
> Instead, read the details / facts to ENHANCE your comprehension of the passage (“why did the author include these facts?”) and to mentally note where in the passage these details are mentioned so you can refer back to them quickly
Strategy for solving:
> Pay attention to the FOCUS (subject matter) of the question in the stem (which could be multiple things at once)
e.g., “according to the passage, the political practice of absolutism differs from constitutionalism in that absolutism …” –> answer choices need to be about how absolutism DIFFERs from constitutionalism (not just one sided characteristics of absolutism)
> Locate the detail in the passage and carefully COMPARE the answer choices with the passage (will be in one SPOT, could span multiple sentences though)
—> pay attention to dates, formal names, technical words
–> pay attention to “look above” markers
> The correct answer will (1) restate something said by the passage and (2) correctly answer the question asked —> second point addresses “matching” trap
Trap answers:
> Distortion (resembles the passage but not quite right; misrepresentation of what the passage says)
e.g., generalization of one example
> Half right
> Stretch (extreme cases)
> Opposite (understand the DIRECTION of what’s said by the passage vs the answer choice)
> ** Speculation (the correct answer will ALWAYS be explicitly stated or mentioned in the passage, even through the use of synonyms)
> ** Nearby (wrong answer choices that use language of sentences NEAR the keywords in the passage but don’t answer the question)
> ** Matches but incorrect (answer choice restates something said by the passage, but DOES NOT correctly answer the question asked)
> ** Wrong comparison
> ** Mix up (of perspectives and ideas)
Keep in mind:
> Sometimes, the GMAT will use SYNONYMS or related words in a question and in the passage –> treat as meaning the same thing (it’s OKAY if the wording in the answer choice is the most different answer choice from the wording of the passage)
> Speculation is NOT supported by the passage
> But still pay attention to the WORDS used in the passage (verbs, nouns, modifiers)
> GO BACK TO THE PASSAGE to review the details that you may have missed / not comprehended the first time around
> A variation of this question is called a detail EXCEPT question (must pick the answer that the passage does NOT say)
What type of question is this?
“It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of people who exercise for at least 60 minutes a day on at least five days a week?”
“The passage suggests which of the following about animals’ abilities to count objects?”
“The author of the passage implies that Ritter’s depiction of Shaka Zulu is…”
Inference Qs
> an “inference” is essentially an UNWRITTEN CONCLUSION that is LOGICALLY SUPPORTED by information in the passage (something IMPLIED by the passage)
> Unlike a Critical Reasoning inference Q, RC Inference Qs have a looser relationship between the passage and the correct answer
The correct answer to an Inference RC question will STATE A CONCLUSION supported by the passage
Correct answers could:
1) State a CONCLUSION SUPPORTED by one or more statements in the passage (either in the same paragraph or in different parts of the passage)
> the correct answer MUST be supported (avoid making the speculation mistake)
2) Reverse something the passage says to state the logical equivalent of what the passage says (similar to what we see in math, “x > y” is the logical equivalent of “y < x”)
e.g., By the late 1900s, most of the people in Vietnam were able to read = By the last 1900s, people who could not read were in the minority in Vietnam
Trap answers for inference questions
*similar traps as Detail questions
1) Distortion (close, but not quite right) e.g., incorrect nouns or modifiers –> misrepresents / twists what the passage says
2) Stretch - similar but too far (often combined with extreme markers)
***** 3) Speculation - could be true or likely to be true, but NOT MUST BE TRUE (remember - inferences must be supported by the passage!!)
> Just because the author does not make explicit mention of something, it does NOT mean that the author agrees/disagrees with it = NOT SUPPORTED by the passage
4) Opposite answers (check the DIRECTION of what the passage says vs the option set)
5) Half-right
6) Nearby trap
7) Matches passage, but does not answer the question
8) Wrong comparison (does not answer the question)
9) Mix up of perspectives
