CR v2

Question 1

Parts of an argument

Answer 1

(any background info) + premises (evidence) + assumptions = conclusion

> remember: assumptions are the unstated glue / information that connects the evidence to the conclusion

When reading arguments, think about HOW THE PREMISES + ASSUMPTION lead to the conclusion

Question 2

Essential words to understand (to ensure that you are comprehending the passage correctly)

A few
Several
Some
Many
Most
A majority
A minority
Solely
At least one
Exclusively
Uniquely
Always

Answer 2

A few = more than 1, but not many

Several = 3 or more, but not many

** Some = more than one, and possibly all
> e.g., “some” could be 2 people or millions of people

** Many = a large ABSOLUTE number of; not necessarily “most” (>50%)
> also it is unclear whether “many” is a significant number or not (relative to a total figure)
> e.g.,10,000 out of billions? or 1000 out of 2000?

Most = more than 50%

A majority = more than 50%

A minority = less than 50%

Solely = only

At least one = one or more

Exclusively = only

Uniquely = only

Always = in all cases

** More = increase in number; not necessarily “all”
> e.g., if the argument’s conclusion is that MORE people will consume more calcium after the plan is implemented, then it still works if not all people follow the plan, as long as SOME people follow the plan

Question 3

Logical implications - what does this mean?

Answer 3

When you are approaching CR questions, always consider what the logical implications of the statements in the passage and answer choices are

> use a bit of common sense here but avoid stretches
you can think of a logical implication as “if/then”

Question 4

TTP recommends against “gimmicky” strategies such as:

Answer 4

Note to self

> pre-think –> time consuming and subject to biases

> eliminating answer choices solely because of the presence of particular words (e.g., all, none, always, never) –> playing odds

> do NOT skip words in passages, answer choices, question stems to save time

Question 5

What type of question type is this?

“Which of the following must be true in order for the above conclusion to follow from the evidence provided?”

“Which of the following is an assumption upon which the support for the above conclusion depends?”

“The argument depends on which of the following?”

“The conclusion above would be more reasonably drawn if which of the following were inserted into the argument as an additional premise?”

“In order for the conclusion to be true, which of the following must be true?”

Answer 5

Find the assumption Q
> An assumption is UNSTATED information that MUST BE TRUE in order for the evidence to support the conclusion

If the assumption were found to be FALSE, then the logic of the argument would fall apart

Strategy:
> Negate technique
> BUT also make sure the assumption supports the conclusion (and does not contradict it)
> remember the assumption must be related to the specific CONCLUSION
> figure out which option fills a gap in the argument

Common correct answers for assumption Qs:
(1) PLAN Qs - Assumption that there is NO OFFSETTING FACTOR (malicious variable) to ruin a plan; and the solution will not result in the same problem in a new way
(2) Cause-and-effect Q - Assumption that there is NO ALTERNATIVE explanation (i.e., reverse causation, third factor caused both conditions, no causation just correlation)
(3) UNSUCCESSFUL PLAN Qs - Assumption that there is NO ALTERANTIVE PATHS for success of a plan
(4) Assumption that something likely to be true is actually true
(5) Assuming that data can carry over across time periods (past<–>future) and there aren’t MALICIOUS variables to make this untrue

Other things to note:
> On your first pass through the answer choices, keep the choices that you are not sure about (assumptions are generally inconspicuous)
> Also helpful to consider “Malicious Variables” that the author of the passage did not consider –> becomes the ASSUMPTION the author is making in order for their argument to remain sound (assuming that the malicious variable is NOT TRUE)
> Premises are always considered FACTUAL (so an answer choice that says something that appears to confirm a premise or explain a premise will NEVER be correct) ***
> When an author makes an argument, she assumes that the argument is CORRECT and no malicious variables will ruin her argument
> Also, the author’s plan is not necessarily the best plan! It is just ONE possible plan
> red flags in options that say “WOULD …” or state a “GENERAL FACT” (because we care about a SPECIFIC PLAN)
> the right answer choice, once negated, will also make the EVIDENCE STATED less likely to support the conclusion

Question 6

Common trap answers for find the assumption Qs

Answer 6

(1) Supports the wrong conclusion

(2) Opposite answer (answer weakens argument)

(3) Answer EXPLAINS an aspect of the scenario presented in the passage // provides more detail to a premise

(4) Answer is a CONCLUSION (not an assumption)
> Negation strategy less effective here

5) Answer mentions a “better” or “alternative” plan
> a plan does NOT have to be the “best possible plan” or “only possible plan” in order for it to work (i.e., you do NOT need to assume there is no better or alternative plan available)
> avoid picking answers that talk about what other plans “COULD” be implemented (because the plan in the passage could still work regardless of other plans)

(6) Answer that supports (strengthens) conclusion BUT is NOT an assumption
> TRICKY TRAP
> Be care when using the negation technique (do not falsely think that the conclusion fails if the option were not true)

e.g., even if there WERE signs of invasions where Anabara communities were located, it could STILL be the case that what really killed off the Anabara people was smallpox (rather than something having to do with invaders)

Question 7

What type of question type is this?

“Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?”

“Which of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the conclusion drawn above?”

“Which of the following, if true, does the most to call into question the claim made?” ***

“Which of the following, if true, would indicate a vulnerability of the speaker’s argument?”

Answer 7

** Weaken the Argument (aka conclusion)

> Since background info and premises in the GMAT are taken to be TRUE, we can only WEAKEN the argument by showing that the CONCLUSION DOES NOT necessarily follow from the premises (even if we take those premises to be true)
Therefore, weaken the argument Qs are related to ASSUMPTIONS (e.g., ATTACKING ASSUMPTIONS made by the author and proving that assumptions are NOT valid)
note that most correct answers simply CAST DOUBT on the validity of the assumptions made by authors (even a small amount of doubt on the efficacy of an argument has a WEAKENING effect)
also weaken DOES NOT MEAN DESTROY (in fast, the correct answer will often weaken the argument in SUBTLE yet important ways) = CAST REASONABLE DOUBT on the author’s argument

Strategy for solving:
(1) UNDERSTAND the passage
(2) Identify the conclusion of the argument
(3) Understand the premises that support the conclusion
(4) Go through each answer choice one by one, eliminating “strengtheners” and choices that do NOT affect the argument
> remember to remain flexible in case you eliminate the wrong answer the first time around
(5) select the answer choice with the clearest weakening impact

Example weakeners:
> ** PLAN: malicious variables (disrupt plans / show that the plan won’t work / different time or situation)
> PLAN: New info that indicates the plans WILL work or do make sense
> alternative causes or explanations (false dichotomy)
>** CAUSE AND EFFECT: correlation relationship exists (instead of causation relationship) —> e.g., show reverse causation, third factor causes both factors, correlation is a mere coincidence
> differences across time periods
> SAMPLE/SURVEY: Faulty generalizations of groups based on subset (i.e., not all people belonging to a group possess the same characteristics as the subset / samples are not representative of the overall populations that the conclusions are about / there is BIAS in the sample)
> COMPARISON: Faulty comparison (two things are fundamentally different in an important way such that the comparison does not actually support the conclusion) —-> Pay attention to exactly what you are comparing (there could be MORE THAN ONE source of comparison…)
> ABSOLUTE NUMBERS vs PERCENTAGES (data does not support her conclusion e.g., a small % does not necessarily equal a small number, a decrease does not necessarily equal a small number, a large number does not always equate a large %)
> prove assumption that the author made is NOT A GOOD ONE
Other things to note:
> In most cases, general statements are INCORRECT
> don’t be afraid of NEW information
> answer choices that weakens a premise will never be correct because premises are ALWAYS considered factual *** (need to go back to the passage and see if the answer contradicts what is said in the passage)
> “Many” does NOT equal “All” (e.g., “some” people could be in the minority”

HOW TO ELIMINATE WRONG ANSWERS????

Question 8

Trap choices for weaken the argument questions

Answer 8

“pseudo-weakener answer choice * They say something detrimental to the conclusion AND seems related to the argument

BUT at the same time, the trap choice DOES NOT WEAKEN the argument

Be ware that the CORRECT answer to weaken the argument Qs may seem disconnected from the argument at first glance –> need a second read and understanding of COMMON KNOWLEDGE; (often times the answer choice that appears to be irrelevant ends up being the right answer)

Other trap answer choices:

(1) Strengtheners (opposite answer)
> be extra careful of answer choices that seem to resemble an idea that occurred to you on your own

(2) pseudo-weakeners (give the impression that they weaken the argument, but they don’t get the job done)
> the word “some” just means “not all” and usually is not a strong enough statement to weaken the argument

(3) Frameshifts (weaken the support for the WRONG conclusion and may mislead us into believing that the two conclusions are the same)
> wrong answer choice attacks the relevance of the example rather than the point of the argument

(4) Relevant, but DO NOT AFFECT (Weaken) the argument
> this tempting wrong answer choice says something worthy of consideration in the real world

(5) Attack premises
> Remember premises in GMAT argument are taken to be TRUE and therefore CANNOT BE UNDERMINED

Question 9

Tricky question stems (weaken the argument):

> EXCEPT and NOT

> “Which of the following, if discovered in experiments, would support one of the two hypotheses and undermine the other?”

Answer 9

A helpful tip is to LABEL each answer choice with a “Yes” or with a “No”
(instead of thinking whether each choice is “correct” or “incorrect”)

e.g., for weaken the argument Qs, “Yes” = choice weakens the argument, “No” = choice does not weaken the argument

e.g., for assumption Qs, “Yes” = choice is an assumption, “No” = choice is not an assumption

If you are asked for a single statement that simultaneously weakens one hypothesis while strengthening another ….
> For every option, ask yourself whether the option supports Hypothesis 1
> Then for every option, ask yourself whether the option supports Hypothesis 2
> The answer choice with one Yes and one No is the correct one

Question 10

What type of question type is this?

“Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the hypothesis?”

“Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest grounds for ___”

“Which of the following, if true, most helps to justify ___”

“Which of the following, if true, provides the best reason for ___”

Answer 10

Strengthen the argument Q

> predictable language in the question stem (“justify”, “supports”, “strongest grounds”, “most to strengthen”)

Common correct answers for assumption Qs:
(1) Provide SUPPORT (PREMISE) for the conclusion
> prompt contains facts and the author’s conclusion without support to justify that conclusion
> Or prompt could benefit from MORE EVIDENCE to support the conclusion

(2) EXPLICITLY state a CONTROVERSIAL ASSUMPTION upon which the argument depends
> if the assumption were false, then the conclusion would not fully be supported; this type of assumption is effectively an UNWRITTEN PREMISE in the argument

(3) Address an issue that could affect the validity of the conclusion
> e.g., address issues related to statistical data presented in the passage (author assumes that data is effective as evidence to support the conclusion)

(4) CAUSE AND EFFECT: Remove “weakeners” / rule out an alternate cause of an effect

(5) CAUSE AND EFFECT: Confirm a conclusion by changing, adding, or eliminating a variable and seeing what happens (kind of like in a scientific experiment where we have a control group and an experimental group)
> e.g., conclusion is that the cause of mercury posioning among the people in Mergate is tuna consumption. If we REMOVE THE TUNA CONSUMPTION variable and look at the people in Mergate who DO NOT EAT TUNA and learned that they DO NOT HAVE mercury poisoning, the conclusion is strengthened

Note:
> It is often more effective to examine the five choices AS A GROUP and pick up the weak links than it is to evaluate choice by choice, crossing off as we go (this is because the correct answer can look irrelevant at first)
> Because in Strengthen (and Weaken) the Argument questions the correct answer could discuss NEW information, the correct answer may appear to be “out of scope” *****
> Also sometimes it can help to think of the effect if an answer choice were NOT TRUE

Question 11

Trap choices for Strengthen the argument questions

Answer 11

Trap choice says something that sounds positive and related to the argument, BUT it does NOT affect the argument

Correct answers clearly SUPPORT the conclusion, even if it appears to be unrelated to the conclusion at first

> need to re-read answers again and COMPARE BACK TO THE CONCLUSION

Common trap choices:
(1) Info that does NOT affect argument in any way
> these answers still SOUND important to the topic and therefore are often spun into CONVOLUTED STORIES that are NOT ACTUALLY SUPPORTED by the argument
> compare back to conclusion (what is the conclusion saying)
> does the answer choice tell us what the conclusion is saying?
> right answers will be WELL SUPPORTED BY THE INFO presented in the argument AND by common sense
> Challenging questions will utilize fairly involved, often sophisticated, lines of reasoning that are completely logical and supported
> Also the fact that people were NOT AWARE of consequences/shortcomings DOES NOT add support to the conclusion that follows these consequences (e.g., just because the Mayans were not aware of the consequences of clearing forests does not add support to the hypothesis that the city did collapse because of such consequences)

(2) Info that confirm that validity of a premise / explains a part of the stimulus
> Premises in ALL CR questions are already considered facts so these choices actually have NO EFFECT on the validity of the premises or strength of the arguments
> Similarly, there is no way to a strengthen a fact so there is no way to strengthen a premise (explaining does not strengthen an argument)

(3) Choice that supports similar but WRONG conclusion
> be critical about these answer choices that say something relevant but support the wrong conclusion

(4) Information NOT well connected to the SCENARIO in the argument
> Need to be PROPER APPLE TO APPLE comparisons for an answer choice to be a strengthener

(5) Pseudo-strengthener
> seem to be relevant to the argument’s conclusion but does NOT support the conclusion
> *** or says something that would strengthen the argument if the argument had NOT ALREADY RULED OUT the choice’s path to strengthening
e.g., if the passage states that “trucks already travel at the maximum allowable speed on highways…”, then an answer choice that states “the new trucks are capable of achieving higher speeds” is A PSEUDO STRENGTHENER

(6) Weakens the argument (opposite effect)

Question 12

Example hard Strengthen the Argument question:

In an effort to make college education more affordable, the government of Grendania plans to subsidize college education by paying up to fifteen percent of college tuition for any Grendanian who attends colleges full time. However, rather than make college more affordable for students, implementing this plan will serve only to increase the revenue of universities

Which of the following most clearly supports the conclusion above?

(1) Universities in Grendania base the levels of their tuition on the amounts that people are willing to pay

(2) Even if the average college tuition in Grendania were fifteen percent lower, many people would still have difficulty affording to attend college

Answer 12

Strengthen the Argument:

CONCLUSION: However, rather than make college more affordable for students, implementing this plan will serve only to increase the revenue of universities
> need to find an answer choice that shows why the plan WILL NOT WORK (looking for SUPPORT / PREMISE)

(1) If universities in G base their levels of tuition on the amounts that people are willing to pay, then government subsidies could INCREASE the cost of tuition since it is set equal to 15 percent of tuition (variable amount)
> ** universities will base their tuition levels on the SUM of what STUDENTS are willing to pay AND what the GOVERNMENT is willing to pay
> This would increase the revenue for universities AND increase the cost for students

(2) This choice explains that the government tuition subsidy would STILL NOT BE ENOUGH FOR “MANY” people to be able to attend college
> BE CAREFUL with the word “many” (not necessarily means most or >50%)
> government subsidy would STILL MAKE COLLEGE MORE AFFORDABLE FOR STUDENTS

ANS (1)

Question 13

Tricky question stems (strengthen the argument):

> EXCEPT and NOT

e.g., “All of the following, if true, strengthen the argument, EXCEPT”

Answer 13

You are looking for an argument that either WEAKENS the argument OR has no effect on the strength of the argument

Eliminate answers that clearly STRENGTHEN the argument

A helpful tip is to LABEL each answer choice with a “Yes” or with a “No”
(instead of thinking whether each choice is “correct” or “incorrect”)

e.g., for strengthen the argument Qs, “Yes” = choice strengthens the argument, “No” = choice does not strengthen the argument

Question 14

Could the Question stem ask you to strengthen or weaken a different conclusion?

Answer 14

Possibly - you could be asked to strengthen or weaken a COUNTERCONCLUSION (just always understand the question stem and assume the way it is written is correct)

Question 15

Hard strengthen the argument Q (when you are down to the last 2 options that both seem good…)

In response to the passage of a certain new law by the City of Redville, StarMediaCom, a leading provider of phone and internet services, has decided to stop offering telecom services in Redville in hopes of causing there to be pressure on the government of Redville to repeal or revise the law. Because phone and internet services are vitally important to not only the health of all businesses in Redville but also the wellbeing of its people who rely on such services, Redville’s citizens will soon begin pressuring the government to repeal or revise the law.

Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument above?

(A) As an indirect result of StarMediaCom’s ceasing to offer services in Redville, many Redville citizens not currently aware of the existence of the new law will become aware of it

(B) Redville citizens have means by which to get news that do not rely on StarMediaCom services and thus will be aware of why StarMediaCom stopped offering telecom services in Redville

Answer 15

ISSUE - these two options seem very similar (both deal with awareness of the new law)
> Option A is more simple than Option B (explains a logistical hiccup that citizens will be able to find out about why StarMediaCom is ceasing services - law + rationale, while A just describes that citizens will be aware of the new law)

ERROR - bad logic

B is right because we need to validate the assumption that Redville citizens will only pressure the gov’t IF they KNOW WHY StarMediaCom has cut the services

A does not go that far (even if more Redville citizens become aware of the new law, they might NOT CARE about it to pressure the gov’t to repeal it; could also even be that as more people find out about the law, the law will gain supporters rather than gain opponents)

Question 16

Hard strengthen the argument Q (when you are down to the last 2 options that both seem good…)

Unlike most other fish, sharks travel in a pattern that involves first swimming at an upward angle, and then coasting at a downward angle. Sharks, unlike most other fish, are always denser than the water in which they swim, and therefore, sink when they are not actively swimming. Marine biologists believe that this fact is the reason why sharks travel differently from other fish.

Which of the following best supports the marine biologists’ conclusion?

(A) Seals, which become denser as they go deeper into the ocean, switch from swimming horizontally near the ocean’s surface to swimming upward and coasting downward when they are deep underwater

(B) When non-shark fish use internal mechanisms to adjust their density to make it greater than that of the surrounding water, they sink deeper into the water

Answer 16

Crossed out A initially because I thought it was a poor comparison (seals =/ sharks)

Identify the CONCLUSION - cause-and-effect –> sharks swim differently than other fish due to their DENSITY

ERROR - eliminated seemingly OOO answer

A - careful NOT TO ELIMINATE this choice merely because it’s about a topic that is NOT OBVIOUSLY connected to the argument.
> choice says that when seals are denser, they swim in the same way sharks do
> shows that DENSITY IS THE CAUSE of the pattern of travel
> experiemnt - when density is NOT present, the seals swim in a different way than sharks. But when density IS present, the seals swim in the same way as sharks

B - just states that both sharks and non-shark fish sink when they are denser than the surrounding water –> this is just an absolute truth (anything sinks when it is denser than water)

Question 17

Hard weaken the argument Q

Because air conditioners consume significant amounts of electricity, each summer, the electrical power generation systems in Hothumidia are strained. Fortunately, recent innovations have led to the design of air conditioners that use 30% less power per unit of air cooled than is used by any air conditioner in sue in Hothumidia today. Once the new air conditioners become widely available, the strain on Hothumidia’s electrical power generation systems will be relieved

Which of the following, if true, is most detrimental to the above prediction?

(A) Most people in Hothumidia do not use air conditioners because the monthly cost to power an air condition is typically about 20% more than they are willing to spend

(B) On average, it will take three years for a building owner in Hothumidia to recoup the costs of replacing an air conditioner with one of the new, more efficient ones

Answer 17

Chose B incorrectly because we incorrectly assumed that COST would be barrier to adoption of new ACs and therefore would NOT relieve the strain on power generators
> slight weakener
> still possible for building owners to sink the cost…
> we don’t know how people in Hothumidia make business decisions (e.g., savings over 10 years could be significant, then 3 years is nothing) —> THERE IS NO SUPPORT TO PRESUME ONE WAY OR THE OTHER

ERROR: eliminated seemingly OOO answer and chose an answer that is not well justified

A is correct because of MATH
> currently only a few people are using ACs in the summer and causing a strain on power generators
> with the new ACs, these same individuals will likely revert to the new ACs and therefore collective electricity requirements would reduce by 30%
> HOWEVER, since the new ACs reduce power requirement, this means the new ACs ALSO REDUCE COST
> would result in MORE PEOPLE STARTING TO USE ACs in the summer => net effect IS MORE ELECTRICITY being used in the summer (not less)

Question 18

What type of question type is this?

“Which of the following statements, if true, would best resolve the apparent contradiction described above?”

“… would explain the discrepancy described above?”

“… do most to justify this apparently paradoxical belief”

“… best explains the contrast described above”

Answer 18

Resolve the Paradox / Explain the discrepancy

> explain how seemingly contradictory facts can harmoniously coexist
passages will often contain keyword that identifies the CONTRAST
(e.g., even though, however, although, yet, but, instead, rather, surprisingly, unexpectedly, despite…)

How to solve:
> keep track of the TWO contradictory facts that need to be reconciled
> be VERY PRECISE what the contradiction is (e.g., why was the town OVERRUN WITH DUCKS, not why did the duck population not increase; e.g., why did sales at the local coffee shops INCREASE despite the new competitor, not why did sales stay the same) –> what is the source of the INCREASE?
> look for what COULD be true, not what must be true (there will be many possible ways in which we could resolve the paradox, just need to find ONE OF THEM)
> looking for the “aha” moment
> how can two facts be true at the same time?

Note:
> premises do NOT have a conclusion
> pay attention to the DIRECTION of what the correct answer has to explain (e.g., you might have to explain why something increased / did not increase / decreased / did not decrease / stayed the same)

Question 19

Common incorrect choices for resolve the paradox Qs

Answer 19

(1) does not explain the paradox / explains the wrong thing
> e.g., only explains something related to ONE SIDE of the paradox
> e.g., explain something related to the stimulus, but not how the two facts can co-exist

(2) does not explain the discrepancy / instead explains the similarity between the two things

(3) does not explain the discrepancy / makes the situation more paradoxical (reinforce the paradoxical nature of the facts presented)

(4) choice calls into question the credibility of one of the two facts
> we always accept the two facts in the passage AS TRUE, even though they contradict one another

(5) does not explain the discrepancy / choice with no effect on the paradox (but still appear to be related to the stimulus)
> DON’T MAKE CONVOLUTED STORY

Question 20

What happens when you have a choice that sounds GOOD and relevant but is ambiguous and generic?

e.g., “Over time, the popularity of words or expressions can increase or decrease significantly.”

Answer 20

Be careful!
> if a choice implies MULTIPLE POSSIBLE directions, then it is too ambiguous to be the right answer

e.g., did the popularity of sophisticated words (what we care about) increase or decrease or remain the same? This choice just gives us a general statement that the popularity of words can increase or decrease significantly, but does NOT TELL US which of them actually occurred.

REMEMBER - the right answer choice MUST BE SUPPORTED by the passage

Question 21

Cause and effect reasoning

Examples of flawed cause-and-effect reasoning?

Examples of cause-and-effect reasoning in GMAT questions? What would be ways to strengthen or weaken cause-and-effect relationship?

Answer 21

Cause-and-effect reasoning
> could be present in a variety of arguments and GMAT CR question types

Be sure to IDENTIFY cause and effect reasoning in an argument and conclusion (when thinking about the logic of the argument, are you drawing an invisible “arrow” for causation?)

Two qs:
(1) what is the direction of the arrow? What is the cause? what is the effect?
(2) positive or negative causal relationship?

> when an author makes a cause and effect claim, she assumes that her cause and effect claim is ACTUALLY CORRECT AND there is no alternative explanation for the observed events
however in reality, humans often make incorrect assumptions about cause and effect relationships (where they assume a causal relationship when one does not exist)

When an author makes a cause-and-effect argument, a few things could be true…
(1) Author is correct (strengthen it)
(2) Author is incorrect - flawed thinking like sequencing or co-occurrence

Errors in cause-and-effect reasoning:
(A) Sequencing - flawed thinking that when one event occurs BEFORE another event, on this basis alone, we conclude that there is a causal relationship

(B) Co-occurrence - when two or more events occur simultaneously, on this basis alone, they are causally linked (e.g., occurrence of depression alongside alcohol abuse or drug addiction - not necessary for one to cause the other)

Question specific details…

Find the Assumption
> author usually assumes that their cause and effect claim is the ONLY effect and there are no alternative explanations
> author assumes reverse causation is not possible

Weaken the Argument:
> provide additional info that weakens the conclusion that X causes Y
e.g., (1) alt. explanations / third unrelated variable, (2) reverse causation, (3) experiment (effect does not occur when the supposed cause occurs; similarly, when supposed ONLY cause goes away, effect should also not be there)

Strengthen the Argument:
> provide additional support for the conclusion that X caused Y
e.g., (1) Ruling out alt. causes (2) reverse causation is not true (3) Experiment (effect does not occur when cause is not present)

Resolve the Paradox: Explain a surprisingly cause-and-effect mentioned in the passage

Question 22

What type of question is this?

“If the statements above are true, which of the following can be properly inferred from them?”

“If the statements above are true, which of the following must also be true?”

“Which of the following must be true about…?”

“Which of the following is information provided by the passage?”

“If the statements above are true, which of the following conclusions can be properly drawn”

Answer 22

Inference

> we are looking for A CONCLUSION that is properly and fully supported by the facts given and thus MUST BE TRUE under all the conditions and facts (does not depend on any assumptions)
“conclusions DRAWN FROM STATEMENTS” (vs main idea)

Identify inference question:
> no conclusion in the argument (conclusion is in the option set)

Incorrect answers to inference question:
> could be sometimes true but sometimes not true (or seems plausible but not truly supported by the passage)
> introduces new outside information

Strategies for solving
> you can also NEGATE the answer choices –> if the information contradicts info in the passage, then it is likely correct
> pay extra attention to answers that are supported by numerical information located in the passage (e.g., percentages)

Please note:
> the right answer to an Inference need not summarize the passage or provide a main conclusion to an argument (different from an unstated conclusion)
—-> main conclusion is the author’s main reason for writing the argument (Specific Question Type)
—> inference could be ANY conclusion
e.g., Main conclusion: “Thus in order to cover the expenses associated with educating all the children, Verdantville will have to increase property tax rates.”

Inference: “The aggregate value of houses in Verdantville is no greater than it was eight years ago.”

> the right answer could be fully supported by SMALL PORTIONS of the passage (need not be based on the entirety of what is said in the passage) –> just need SOME portion of the stimuli to support the answer
high speed DOES NOT equal fast times (depends on DISTANCE)

Question 23

Hard Inference question:

“In nuclear fusion, the nuclei of two atoms join to form a nucleus of a different element and, in the process, release energy that could be used to produce electrical energy. Generally, temperatures around 50 million degrees Celsius are needed to produce nuclear fusion, but such temperatures are extremely difficult to reach. Now, scientists are studying cold fusion, which could theoretically produce energy through nuclear fusion occurring at room temperature, helping to solve the world’s energy related problems. However, to date, no one has demonstrated that cold fusion can actually occur.

If the statements above are true, which of the following must also be true?

(A) If nuclei of two atoms joined to form a nucleus of a different element, that process occurred in a situation characterized by temperatures around 50 million degrees Celsius.

(B) If, in an experiment, energy from a nuclear reaction was used to produce electrical energy, cold fusion did not drive that process

(C) If temperatures of 50 million degrees Celsius are reached, nuclear fusion will occur

Answer 23

Inference Q –> looking for an answer that MUST BE TRUE based on the facts presented in the stimulus

A - says that if nuclear fusion happened, it was under the context of temperatures of around 50 m degrees Celsius
> but what if two nuclei joined together BUT DID NOT PRODUCE energy? such as the experiments happening with cold fusion studies
> then this statement does NOT need to be true
> ALSO, the passage DOES NOT STATE THAT nuclear fusion occurring at 50 million degrees Celsius is the ONLY process by which nuclei of two atoms join to form a nucleus of a different element

B - talks about ENERGY used to produce electrical energy = nuclear fusion —> we know that none of the cold fusion experiments to date have been successful, so we can confidently rule out cold fusion –> ANS

C - don’t confuse the “necessary” for the “sufficient”
> In this case, temperatures of 50 million degrees Celsius = Necessary
> If the Necessary occurs, the effect could not occur, but not not necessarily need to occur
> in contrast, if nuclear fusion did occur, we know that either temperatures did in fact reach 50 million degrees Celsius OR something else occurred

Question 24

Trap answers for Inference questions

Answer 24

(1) Could be true (answer choice is not fully supported by the passage)

(2) Distorted answers
> trap answers often use the same words as the passage to express DIFFERENT ideas
> while correct answers will often use DIFFERENT WORDS to discuss the same ideas that are in the passage

(3) Answer is “out of proportion” (exaggerates information) to the information presented in the stimulus
> some =/ many =/ most =/ all
> never =/ seldom =/ rarely =/ sometimes =/ often
> good =/ better =/ best
> bad =/ worse =/ worst
> not guaranteed (probability < 100%) =/ unlikely (probability < 50%)
> also pay attention to verb TENSES (‘has never been’ vs ‘will never be’) —> the past does NOT necessarily predict the future

(4) Options that depend on new information, rather than what’s said in the stimulus

(5) Option that is true in the real world, but is NOT supported by the stimulus

Question 25

Hard inference question

During each of the past two years, Bonanvia consumed 50 percent of the oranges that it produced that year and exported the other 50 percent, either in the form of whole fruit or in the form of orange juice. As compared with orange production two years ago, last year the total production of oranges in Bnanvia was 15 percent lower. All the same, last year, Bonanvia exported the same amount of orange juice that it exported the year before.

If the statements above are true, which of the following must also be true?

(A) Last year, Bonanvia consumed less than 50 percent f the orange juice that it produced

(B) Last year, Bonanvia exported a smaller quantity of oranges in the form of whole fruit than it exported during the year before

(C) Bonanvian orange producers’ revenue from exported orange juice last year was the same as the revenue from exported orange juice the year before

Answer 25

Inference Q involving numerical support

> Tricky wording in this stimulus –> differentiate between “oranges”, “orange juice”, “whole fruit”
Overall quantity of oranges consumed and exported is DOWN
but still Bonanvia exports 50% of the total lowered orange quantity = lower amount of orange exports, same % of exports
Since the amount of ORANGE JUICE exported is the SAME, this means that lower amount of WHOLE FRUIT was exported

B

Question 26

Hard inference question

Last month, the average interest rate charged for a commercial loan made in Mennerton was lower than the average for any month in twenty years. During the month, the average rate charged for a loan for commercial real estate was 4.5 percent, while the average rate charged for a commercial loan for equipment purchase was 9 percent.

Which of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?

(A) In Mennerton, had only commercial equipment loans been made last month, last month’s average commercial loan rate would not have been the lowest monthly average seen in twenty years

(B) 4.5 percent is the lowest commercial loan rate seen in Mennerton in twenty years

(C) The month before last month, the average rate charged for a commercial loan in Mennerton was over 5 percent

(D) If no commercial loans had been made last month in Mennerton, the average commercial loan rate for the past nine months would have been higher than it was.

(E) for each of the twelve months preceding last month, the average rate on commercial equipment loans was greater than 9 percent

Answer 26

….

D - we know that the average rate charged excluding the last month was HIGHER than the average rate charged including the last month
–> last month’s average brought DOWN the average for the past 9 months
–> without it, the average would have been higher than it was

Ans D

Question 27

Hard inference question

In Derask, the total number of gasoline burning automobiles on the roads doubled from 1977 to 2017. While, over the same time period, the average amount of fuel each automobile burned in going a mile decreased by 50 percent, the total amount of gasoline used by automobiles in Derask was 10 percent greater in 2017 than it was in 1977.

Which of the following is a conclusion that can be properly drawn from the information in the passage?

(A) the average number of miles travelled by an automobile burning a liter of fuel in Derask was in 2017 twice what it was in 1977

(B) In Derask, the average annual cost of operating an automobile in 1977 was nearly twice the average annual cost of operating an automobile in 2017

(C) In Derask, in 2017, more automobiles traveled more miles than were traveled per automobile in 1977 than traveled fewer miles than were traveled per automobile in 1977

(D) No automobile used in Derask in 2017 burned more gasoline per mile traveled than did any automobile used in Derask in 1977

(E) the total number of miles traveled by automobiles in Derask in 2017 was 10 percent greater than the total number of miles traveled by automobiles in Derask in 1977

Answer 27

Inference - Do not imagine that we have more information than we actually have

Create an equation for total amt of gas used in 1977 vs 2017:
1977 = # gas burning automobiles * per automobile fuel burned

where Per Automobile fuel burned = fuel burned per mile * # of miles travelled

2017 = 2(# gas burning automobiles) * 0.5(fuel burned per mile per automobile) * x*(# of miles per automobile) = 10% greater

(A) Did not understand the math at first —> related to statement “while, over the same time period, the average amount of fuel each automobile burned in going a mile decreased 50 percent…”
> Fuel / mile 2017 = 0.5(fuel / mile 1977)
> flip fraction for miles / fuel 2017 = 2(mile / fuel 1977) –> THIS IS TRUE (just a different way of expression a known premise in the stimulus)

(B) no info in the stimulus about annual cost

(C) Complicated way of saying the more automobiles travelled further in 2017 vs 1977
> we don’t know the break down of cars travelling more miles vs fewer miles, just that total amount of gas used increased by 10%

(D) not supported by stimulus (stimulus just talks about AVERAGES)

(E) Trap answer
> in 2017 on average automobiles burned LESS FUEL PER MILE than in 1977
> in order for the TOTAL AMOUNT of gas to be 10% greater, automobiles would have TRAVEL MORE THAN 10%
> also since there are more gas burning automobiles on the road, total # of miles travelled also >10%

Question 28

CR strategy FYIs (logical modes of reasoning)

Answer 28

> CR questions are organized into TWO broad categories (based on the relationship between premises and the conclusion)

(1) ASSUMPTION/PREMISE leading to conclusion Qs (Weaken / Strengthen / Assumption / Evaluate the Argument / Method of reasoning (incl. boldface) / Find the Flaw)

(2) Must be true based on premises Qs (inference, conclusion*)

> Complete the passage touch on all Q types

> You cannot select a right ans based on “relevant” and “irrelevant” –> instead, base it off of LOGICAL REASONING

> “Critical Questions” aka logical reasoning (understand the DIRECTION the argument is taking, and which premises will strengthen or weaken it)

> So after you read the passage and identify the premises vs conclusion, UNDERSTAND the reasoning pattern and find answer choices that ALIGN WITH THIS DIRECTION

Six modes of reasoning to remember (identify the situation in the premises):
1) Analogy (COMPARING TWO THINGS - either concluding they are similar OR concluding they are dissimilar despite similarities)
> Strengthen/weaken ans will focus on (A) pointing out disparities (why they are DIFFERENT) or (B) pointing out counterexamples
–> need to either talk about the two cases, or bring up a third case

2) Statistical enumeration (NUMBERS - ratios, percentages - extending sample characteristics to general population –> REPRESENTATIVENESS)
> (A) does the sample represent the population
> (B) is the sample big enough to cover whole set

**3) Plan (presents a plan to achieve some sort of outcome // trying to EVALUATE PLAN) –> right ans will focus on the PLAN
> (A) Feasibility of plan
> (B) Malicious variables impacting the plan
> (C) Problems with goal itself

4) Relative cause and effect (two things OCCURRING AT THE SAME TIME, do they have CAUSAL relationship?)
Aka… does A cause B?
> (A) NO CORRELATION - No causal relationship AND correlation does not exist (e.g., think A and B are positively correlated, but new experiment does not show this) —> coincidence
> (B) CORRELATION - No causal relationship AND correlation exists (due to independent 3rd variable that AFFECTS both)
> (C) CORRELATION (due to intermediate 3rd variable) e.g., suicide was caused by breakup and breakup was
caused by unemployment
> (D) Actual causal

5) Causality (given “cause” in premises, conclusion is “effect”)
> might see in a ‘must be true’ question type
> Cause with multiple effects?
> Interfering factors? (affect relationship between premises and conclusion)
> THEORY: most type of plan and prediction qs can be presented as causality q

e.g., Ythex has developed a small diesel engine that produces 30 percent less particulate pollution than the engine made by its main rival, Onez, now widely used in Marania; Ythex’s engine is well-suited for use in the thriving warehousing businesses in Marania, although it costs more than the Onez engine. The Maranian government plans to ban within the next two years the use of diesel engines with more than 80 percent of current diesel engine particulate emissions in Marania, and Onez will probably not be able to retool its engine to reduce emissions to reach this target. So if the ban is passed, the Ythex engine ought to sell well in Marania after that time.

Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument above depends?

6) Opposite Causality (given “effect / phenomenon” in premises, conclusion is “cause”)
> correct answer will EXPLAIN THE EFFECT
> (A) Explain alternative cause (weaken qs)
> (B) Show there is no connection between cause and effect (weaken Qs)

e.g., Guidebook writer: I have visited hotels throughout the country and have noticed that in those built before 1930 the quality of the original carpentry work is generally superior to that in hotels built afterward. Clearly carpenters working on hotels before 1930 typically worked with more skill, care, and effort than carpenters who have worked on hotels built subsequently.

Question 29

What type of question is this?

“Which of the following conclusions is best supported by the information above?”

“If the statements above are true, which of the following is most strongly supported by them?”

“The most reasonable conclusion based on the information above is that”

“The information above provides the most support for which of the following hypotheses?”

“Which of the following is most strongly supported by the statements given?”

“The author is arguing that”

“Which of the following most logically concludes the argument”

Answer 29

Find the Conclusion
> related to Inference, except looking for the MAIN POINT of the argument made by the AUTHOR (trap ans tempt us by using wording or ideas from the author’s premises but totally missing the author’s main idea)
> Main point will be connected to the argument’s Premises, Assumptions, AND any intermediary conclusions

Strategy for solving:
> “Therefore” test –> add a “therefore” to the END of the argument and make sure the ans is a logical conclusion of the argument
> pay attention to WORDING in the passage and answer choices

Remember:
> Don’t just re-read the final two answer choices and rely on “gut instinct” - Don’t give up! This is the time to turn on your critical thinking skills and RELENTLESSLY seek out the correct answer
> Inference vs Find the Conclusion: Inference ans MUST BE TRUE based on what the stimulus says, while correct answer to Find the Conclusion q DOES NOT NECESSARILY HAVE TO BE TRUE –> just needs to FOLLOW LOGICALLY AND BE SUPPORTED ***

e.g., C: Attendance at football games can be expected to decline (because people under age of 35 are migrating out of the city) –> does not necessarily have to be true (what if people over the age of 35 start attending football games?)
> but the conclusion does LOGICALLY FOLLOW (what you EXPECT to happen)
> “likely”, “can”, “might”, “may”, “EXPECT”, “Could”

> also Find the Conclusion answers are the MAIN CONCLUSIONS that follow logically from the ENTIRE stimuli
Inference: a conclusion DRAWN FROM the statements
Find the Conclusion: MAIN conclusion SUPPORTED BY the statements
identify statements and differentiate between SUFFICIENT statements and NECESSARY statements

THEREFORE WHEN FACED WITH FIND THE CONCLUSION Q:
> Ans must be the MAIN idea
> Ans must be SUPPORTED by the statements (not speculation)
> THEREFORE test
> usually “could”, “likely”, “expected” etc.

Helpful to pre-think

Question 30

Common trap answers for Find the Conclusion

Answer 30

1) Ans that depends on outside information not included in the stimulus
> the correct conclusion will follow ONLY FROM the evidence PROVIDED in the stimulus

2) Stretch (goes too far) ***
> UNSUPPORTED by the stimulus (e.g., use of ravens in espionage VS greatly helped espionage efforts; use vs the best method; new procedure vs effectiveness of procedure)
> pay attention to the EXTENT of support of the statements in the stimulus
> pay attention to unsupported generalizations

3) Related to premises but not supported by premises

4) Conflicts with information in the passage
> not supported by premises

IN SUMMARY:
> Eliminate ans that are NOT SUPPORTED by the stimulus (no premise mentioned OR, conflicts with statements in stimulus) —> we don’t care about what is plausible or not
(eliminate SPECULATION)
> pay close attention to necessary vs sufficient (is the statement a necessary or sufficient?)**??

Question 31

What type of question is this?

“In evaluating the argument, it would be most useful to establish which of the following?”

“Which of the following would be MOST USEFUL IN DETERMINING whether the conclusion is valid?”

“In ASSESSING whether the data cited provide support for the position taken, it would be most USEFUL to determine which of the following?”

“In determining the impact of implementing the new strategy, it would be IMPORTANT TO RESEARCH which of the following?”

Answer 31

Evaluate the argument (plan, proposal, argument)
> correct ans will be NEW INFO to decide whether plan will succeed, or whether argument is sound
> Most Evaluate the Argument qs are ASSUMPTION qs
> Keywords in q: “evaluate/assess/research”, “useful/help”
> MOST Answer choices pose a QUESTION to be evaluated e.g., “whether…”, “is…” (type A)
> SOMETIMES the answer choices are in the form of STATEMENTS –> correct answer will EITHER weaken or strengthen the argument (type B)

Strategy for solving:
**> think about ASSUMPTION (turn assumption into a question)
** > Pose the CONCLUSION AS A QUESTION (e.g., could the plan work? Is this the cause? Can you really draw that conclusion based on the premises?)
> NEED one direction to strengthen conclusion and the other direction to weaken conclusion (if one direction has NO IMPACT –> WRONG)
> TYPE A) Apply VARIANCE TEST e.g., Extreme test, Yes/No test (correct ans will have opposite impact on argument whether Yes or No) –> strengthen or weaken the conclusion
> if variance test does not work (for open ended statements)–> need to reason out whether the answer to the question is impactful
**> Type B) Correct answer will EITHER weaken or strengthen the argument

**Incorrect ans will have a Yes/No that has NO EFFECCT on the argument (answer to the question has no effect)

Note:
> At ALL TIMES in answering GMAT questions, seek to SEE WHY the information affects an argument in a certain why
(if you are not seeing reasons to eliminate or keep choices, keep it and go back to the passage to see what you may have missed)
> you need to CLEARLY UNDERSTAND THE POINTS made in the passage (go beyond the understanding in general of what the passages are about)
> BE VERY PRECISE IN READING THE ANSWER CHOICES (e.g., average body fat percentage of participants =/ individual body fat percentages!)
**> try to put the answer choice back into the argument before the conclusion to see if it changes direction of the conclusion

Question 32

Trap choices for Evaluate the argument

Answer 32

1) Related to topic, but does NOT affect the strength of the argument

2) Irrelevant comparisons (experiments for cause and effect arguments)
> make sure comparison is relevant

3) Affects the WRONG conclusion
> understand WHAT IS THE EFFECT (what is decreasing? what is staying the same?)

Question 33

What type of question is this?

Which of the following best describes the ERROR IN REASONING contained in the argument above?

The music columnist’s argument is MOST VULNERABLE TO CRITICISM on which of the following grounds?

Which of the following best describes a WEAKNESS PRESENT in the argument above?

The argument is FLAWED because it fails to consider that…

The author’s conclusion is based on the ERROR IN REASONING

Which of the following points to the most serious LOGICAL FLAW in the argument?

The admissions director’s response is FLAWED THAT…

Which of the following statements, if true, provides the best evidence that the director’s REASONING is flawed? (hybrid…)

Which of the following, if true, would point to a POSSIBLE FLAW in the plan described? (hybrid…)

Which of the following, if true, points to the MOST SERIOUS LOGICAL FLAW in the argument?

Answer 33

Logical Flaw
> in MANY questions, Logical Flaw Qs are just ADVANCED ASSUMPTION questions –> arguments are flawed because author relies on ASSUMPTIONS UNLIKELY TO BE TRUE –> therefore CONCLUSION FAILS TO FOLLOW PREMISES
> Other cases: conclusions not supported by evidence (bad premises) or confusing necessary or significant information with sufficient information

Type 1) Pure Logical Flaw Q – test understanding of the structure of the argument and how the components fit together
> does not introduce new information in the correct answer (different from weaken the argument questions)
> attack assumption structurally

Type 2) Hybrid weaken and logical flaw Q – point of a flaw in the author’s argument BY bringing in new information
> focus on the vulnerability of an ASSUMPTION made by the author via bringing in new info
(attack assumption via new info)

Strategy for Solving:
> Sources of flaws: QUESTIONABLE “unwarranted” ASSUMPTION, BAD PREMISE does not lead to conclusion
> correct ans must be a LOGICAL flaw that the argument actually does

Remember:
> Carefully READ AND UNDERSTAND meaning of each option
> don’t fall for nice sounding words or authoritative sounding wording

Question 34

Logic: could the # of jazz listeners increase and proportion of people listening to jazz increase, WHILE at the same time not impacting # of listeners of other genres?

Answer 34

Yes –> If the TOTAL # of listeners increase and become jazz listeners –> does not impact # of listeners of other genres

Mathematically:

a / T < 1 –> (a+c) / (T + c) —> closer to 1

Question 35

Example list of common flaws in arguments

Answer 35

(1) Errors in reasoning involving cause-and-effect
(Questionable assumptions)
> Wrongly assume correlation between two variables is cause-and-effect (not mere coincidence)
> Wrongly assume no reverse causation
> Wrongly assume no third alt. cause

(2) Overgeneralizing and making sampling errors (stats enumeration) (Questionable assumption)
> incorrectly making broad generalizations based on small samples (not representative of population)

(3) Confusion related to numbers, percentages or other numerical information (stats enumeration)
(Conclusions not supported by premises)
> decreasing percentage DOES NOT necessarily mean decrease absolute count (could be that total pie increasing)
> increasing percentage DOES NOT necessarily mean increase absolute count (could be that total pie decreasing)

(4) Conclusions that are not supported by the EVIDENCE **
> Conclusion DOES NOT LOGICALLY FOLLOW premises
(presents as evidence an assertion that is not clearly linked to its conclusion)
> e.g., just because a product was PUT THROUGH TESTING does not support the conclusion that the product is safe to use

(5) Confusing necessary or significant information with sufficient information ** (Errors in conditional reasoning)
> Necessary condition: must be satisfied by the conclusion to be correct, BUT MAY NOT BE SUFFICIENT
> Sufficient condition: if it occurs, it is sufficient to ensure that a conclusion is correct
> argument could be making an unwarranted assumption that something is sufficient when it really is not (mistake sufficient condition for necessary condition)
> argument takes absence of the sufficient condition as evidence that the necessary condition also did not take place

OTHER LOGICAL FLAWS? Old CR notes
(Conclusions not supported by premises)
> failure to find evidence is used to conclude that evidence does not exist
> failure to find evidence against a position is used to conclude why that position is true
> Source argument (ad hominem) - attacking the speaker’s character or motive (vs attacking facts)
> Appeal to authority or popularity or emotions
> Responding with evidence that is out of scope
> Circular reasoning (premise is equal to the conclusion)
> Strawman - attack opponent’s argument by ignoring actual statements made and instead distorts the argument
> Inherent survey bias and errors
> False analogy used (not a good comparison due to dissimilarities)
> Uncertain use of a term that can be interpreted as ambiguous

Question 36

Trap answers for Logical Flaw Qs

Answer 36

(1) Describe things the argument does not actually do (NOT TRUE OF ARGUMENT)
> be ware that these traps aim to make you complacent with finding an answer that sounds good

**(2) Describe things that are in the argument BUT ARE NOT FLAWS
e.g., out of scope/do not impact line of reasoning

(3) Describe flaws in support of the wrong conclusion
> make sure you identify the conclusion of the argument

(4) Irrelevant mathematical information that does not affect the conclusion
> careful consider the LOGICAL RELATIONHIPS between any mathematical information presented in the answer choices and what the argument is seeking to support

Question 37

What type of question is this?

Which of the following most logically completes the passage?

Answer 37

Complete the Passage Q (Fill in the BLank)
> Stimulus will end with a BLANK SPACE _____
> typically the question stem will PRECEDE the passage
> Blank space could be any of the following:
- assumption made by the author
- strengthen the argument
- weaken the support for a claim presented in the argument
- conclusion
- inference
- resolve a seeming paradox outlined in the passage
- evaluate a plan

Strategy for solving:
> Pay attention to the LAST SENTENCE of the stimulus and rely on INDICATORS (markers) to identify the ROLE the answer should perform
** > then apply SAME strategies as we learned up until this point
> It is helpful to CONVERT THE LAST BLANK SENTENCE into a QUESTION (“why” or “what”) to avoid nice sounding trap
> Plug your ans BACK INTO the passage to make sure that the choice makes the passage flow logically (ans must work with the ENTIRE passage, not just the last sentence)

Question 38

Trap answers for Complete the Passage Q

Answer 38

(1) Nice-sounding, but incorrect (head in a subtly incorrect direction)
> need to be crystal clear on the RELATIONSHIP of entities we are discussing

(2) Plausible OR inferable but not logical completion of the passage (Find the Conclusion type) // True based on the statements, but does NOT logically complete the passage
> Conclusions must logically follow premises

(3) Material, but NOT THE FOCUS of the passage (irrelevant)
> need to be crystal clear on the RELATIONSHIP of entities we are discussing —> must be relevant to the ENTIRE PASSAGE

(4) Explain something discussed in the passage, but does NOT COMPLETE the passage

Question 39

What type of question is this?

The argument above employs which of the following REASONING TECHNIQUES

The passage above proceeds by …

**The author DEVELOPS the argument by …

The father RESPONDS to his daughter’s criticism by doing which of the following?

The exchange above supports the claim that the two parties disagree about …

Which one of the following most accurately DESCRIBES the relationship between Jane’s argument and Mark’s argument?

The Attorney General uses which of the following TECHNIQUES in responding to the cheese importer?

The method of the argument is to …

Which of the following best describes the argument above?

Answer 39

Method of Reasoning
> Different from other Q types –> focus on LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENT (NOT THE MERITS of argument) – acting like “inspectors” of the argument
> Continue to seek out the argument’s Conclusions, Premises, Assumptions
> Methods = techniques strategies used
> Bold face = ROLE of word or phrase in the argument
> “Reasoning” = “ARGUMENT” e.g., “which of the following statements made by a city planner best illustrates the reasoning that underlies the change in policy described in the argument above?” —> match structure of argument with a statement

Basic Method of Reasoning (#1)
Strategy for solving:
> Come up with a PRETHINK ANS ON LOGICAL STRUCTURE before reading the answer choices (what does the author do? e.g., describes something, presents a theory, presents evidence that conflicts with theory, concludes theory is incorrect)
> Make sure the answer exactly describes how a given argument is CONSTRUCTURED (ALL OF IT must be true)
> Content/subject matter of the argument is not as relevant

Pay attention to:
> VERBS in answer choices
> do whatever you can to UNDERSTAND THE ARGUMENT PRESENTED (stay focused, interested in the info presented, be like Sherlock Holmes solving a mystery) - GMAT rewards careful reading
> it’s okay if the WORDS don’t match as long as meaning does

Two-Speaker Method of Reasoning (#2)
> Some method of reasoning qs might involve dialogue between TWO SPEAKERS (each present a separate argument - evidence, assumption(s), conclusion(s))
> second speaker typically provides a RESPONSE by rebutting a criticism made by the first speaker or correcting one of their statements (either supporting the same conclusion but arriving at different logical paths or supporting different conclusions)

Strategy for solving:
> Read through the exchange and understand the CONCLUSIONS MADE BY EACH SPEAKER and LOGIC OF ARGUMENTS
> Person A vs Person B: Is person B outright rejecting premise/conclusion of others? Or agreeing to them, but pointing out additional info?
> Come up with a PRETHINK ANS ON LOGICAL STRUCTURE before reading the answer choices

Pay attention to:
> VERBS in answer choices
> do whatever you can to UNDERSTAND THE ARGUMENT PRESENTED (stay focused, interested in the info presented, be like Sherlock Holmes solving a mystery) - GMAT rewards careful reading
> it’s okay if the WORDS don’t match as long as meaning does

HOW TO DEAL WITH DOWN TO 2 ANSWERS?
> need to be very precise in reading the options
> must match structure of argument (not just sound good/valid content wise)
> match to your pre-think

Question 40

What type of question is this?

In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?

In the argument above, the portion in boldface plays which of the following roles?

Which of the following, if true, would serve the same function in the argument as the statement in boldface?

Answer 40

Boldface Method of Reasoning (Part #3)
> identify the ROLE the boldfaced section plays
> still less concerned about the merits of the argument - we care about the STRUCTURE

e.g., premises/support, main conclusion, intermediate conclusion

> these passages will purposely obscure the MAIN conclusion with intermediate conclusions and other roles, placement of the conclusion, reducing the use of structural markers –> need careful reading of the details and context of the entire passage

e.g., “That perception is incorrect” –> conclusion! (similar to difficult RC passages where the author’s opinion is obscured)

Strategy for solving:
> Always identify the MAIN conclusion (often NOT near the ends of the passages) —-> statement that is SUPPORTED BY OTHER INFO in the passage
> Pay attention to the DIRECTION of support of the boldfaced (support conclusion? Opposes conclusion? is it the conclusion?)
> make sure you check the answer with the passage

Note:
> “Therefore” is NOT ALWAYS a marker for the main conclusion (could be intermediate conclusion = premise) –> use the “Because…Therefore” test

TRAP ANSWERS:
(1) Half right
(2) Closely related but wrong

Question 41

Trap answers for Method of Reasoning Qs

Answer 41

AVOID answer that DO NOT MATCH THE ARGUMENT’S STRUCTURE

(1) Answer provides new components that don’t match the argument (wrong)
> be resistant to traps that tempt you to address gaps in a flawed argument –> you are just inspecting an argument’s structure, whether it’s good or badly constructed
> it’s okay for WORDS NOT TO MATCH (e.g., entertainment and leisure activities = restaurants and shops)

(2) Half right (still wrong)

(3) Answer describes methods the arguments COULD use, BUT does not use (wrong)

(4) Answer that RESEMBLES what the argument does, but STILL WRONG
> be aware of nice sounding answer choices that don’t describe the methods used by the argument

** Keep your biases in CHECK (especially when reading COMPARATIVE STATEMENTS)
> e.g., “she challenges the judgement that the benefits of engaging in the deal are outweighed by the negative effects of engaging in the deal” –> saying benefits < costs (NOT benefits > costs)
> e.g., A is slower than B –> saying A’s rate < B’s rate (NOT A’s rate > B’s rate)