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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

IR SPEC

Bond
Frequency
Intensity

A

C=O 1680-1735 strong

C=C 1680-1620 variable

CtripleC 2260-2100 variable
CtripleN 2260-2220 variable
C-H 3300-2700 variable
N-H 3150-2500 moderate

O-H 3650-3200 broad

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2
Q

Skeptic

A

Person inclined to question or doubt all accepted positions

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3
Q

Critic

A

Expressing unfavorable opinion of something

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4
Q

Indubitable

A

Cannot be doubted, unquestionable

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5
Q

Amide

A

o=CNH2

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6
Q

Imine

A

C=N

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7
Q

Object placed in liquid will displace

A

an equal mass of fluid ( if it floats) and an equal volume (if it sinks)

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8
Q

Heat Curve

A

Since the chart has areas where temp is changing and not changing we need two separate equations. In places on the chart where temp is changing we use q = mcdT (since dT would be non-zero). But if we use the same equation at a phase change point (eg at 0 C where ice melts or vice versa) then dT = 0 and it would indicate that no heat is being transferred. But in order to melt ice heat NEEDS to be transferred to break bonds. It just so happens that they dont change temperature at that phase change. So at those points we use q = mL (or as I like to call it, q = nH since n = moles and H = enthalpy since those are the units you need).

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9
Q

Isothermal

A

no change in temp

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10
Q

isobaric

A

no change in pressure

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11
Q

isovolumetric

A

no change in volume

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12
Q

adiabatic

A

no heat in or out of system

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13
Q

VAT

A

Vf= Vo + at

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14
Q

VAX

A

Vf^2= Vo^2 + 2a delta (x)

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15
Q

TAX

A

delta x= vot + 1/2 at^2

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16
Q

Newton SI Unit

A

kg meters/ seconds squared

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17
Q

Electric Field SI Unit

A

Newton/ Coulomb

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18
Q

The Limbic System

A

Set of structures residing below the cerebrum on either side of the thalamus

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19
Q

Parts of the Limbic System

A

Amygdala (small round structure, signals cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotion Fear - Emotion through interpretation of facial expressions). 2 Thalamus (preliminary sensory processing station and routes info to the cortex and other areas of the brain). Hypothalamus (synthesizes and releases NT, homeostatic and modulates emotion) 4. Hippocampus (LT memory)

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20
Q

Formation of Memory Explicit Vs Implicit

A

Explicit- memory about emotion. Implicit- Emotional Memory

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21
Q

Retrieval of Memory Explicit Vs Implicit

A

Explicit Consious memory of event Implicit- Expression of emotional responses.

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22
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

Anterior portion of frontal lobe with planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality and making decisions

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23
Q

Stress

A

Challenging events, physical , emotional cognitive and behavioral.

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24
Q

Cognitive appraisal, primary and secondary appraisal

A

Cognitive appraisal is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress. pirmary appraisal = initial evaluation of environment and associated threat. Can be identified as irrelevant, benign, or stressful. If it is a threat then secondary appraisal begins in which we assess if we can cope with the stress

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25
Q

Types of stressors

A

Environment, workplace, social etc. Distressors are unpleasent stressors and Eustress is Positive conditions such as graduating or a high MCAT score

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26
Q

Physiological response to stressors

A

Sympathetic Nervous System. General Adaptation Syndrome is a sequence of physiological resonses in 3 distinct stages (Alarm [initial rxn to a stressor and activation of SNS- could involve hypothalamus to stimulate pituitary to secrete ACTH which acts on adrenal glands- make cortisol. Hypothalamus can also stimulate the adrenal medulla to release epi and norepi to activate SNS]. 2 Resistance- involves continuous release of hormones, SNS engaged to fight teh stressor. 3. Exhaustion- Cant maintain elevated response from SNS))

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27
Q

Coping with stress strategies

A

1 Problem- Focused, working to overcome stressor, making a plan. 2 Emotionally focused- changing feelings about a stressor. Coping can be adaptive (reach out for support) or maladapative ( drugs and alchol).

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28
Q

Disaccharides

A

form as a result of glycosidic bonding between two monosaccharide subunits; polysaccharides form by repeated monosaccharide or polysaccharide glycosidic bonding

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29
Q

Common disaccharides

A

Sucrose ( glucose a 1.2 fructose) Lactose (galactose B 1-4 glucose) Maltose (glucose a 14 glucose)

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30
Q

Monosaccharides

A

single carbohydrate units with glucose as the most commonly observed monomer. they can undergo three main reactions. oxidation reduction, esterification, and glycoside formation.

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31
Q

Aldoses can be oxidized to ___ and reduced to ___

A

oxidized to aldonic acids and reduced to alditols

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32
Q

Sugars that can be oxidized are ___ themselves, and can be detected by reacting with ___ or ___ reagents

A

sugars that can be oxidized are reducing agents themselves and can be detected by reacting with tollens or benedicts reagents

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33
Q

LiAlH4 is a

A

reducing agent

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34
Q

By reducing an aldose you get an

A

alditol (alcohol)

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35
Q

Planar hybridization

A

sp2

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36
Q

Conjugation

A

Conjugated double bonds in a molecule, mean that the single and double bonds alternate. These enables the electrons to be delocalised over the whole system and so be shared by many atoms. This means that the delocalised electrons may move around the whole system.

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37
Q

Lac operon

A

Is inducible because it is always off but we can induce it to turn on. Inducer binds to the repressor to free the operator region

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38
Q

Trp operon

A

Is repressible because it is always on. We are only going to supress it if we have enough of the food source and we dont need it. In the presence of co-repressor (tryptophan) it binds to the repressor to bind the operator

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39
Q

ACTH is released by

A

anterior pituitary

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40
Q

Cortisol release

A

adrenal cortex

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41
Q

Franz Gall

A

Phenology. If a particular trait was well developed the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand

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42
Q

Franz Gall

A

Behavior, intellect and personality linked to brain anatomy

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43
Q

Pierre Flourens

A

Functions of major sections of brains. By extirpation. Parts of the brain are surgically removed and behavior consequences were observed (ablation) conclusion : each area has specific functions

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44
Q

Functionalism

A

William James and John Dewey. James= how the brain adapts to environment. Dewey = organism as a whole as it is functioned to adapt to the environment. Functionalism (psychology- how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment)

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45
Q

Paul Broca

A

Linked specific deficits to specific brain lesions. Broca’s area- a major language center

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46
Q

Helmholtz

A

Measured speed of a nerve impsulse. Transition of psychology to neuroscience

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47
Q

Sir Charles Sherrington

A

Inferred the existence of synapses

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48
Q

Phrenology

A

Well developed traits led to expansion of specific part of the brain (proven incorrect)

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49
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Somatic and Autonomic nervous system. Autonomic nervous system (parasym and symp)

50
Q

Is the thalamus in the central or peripheral nervous system

A

central nervous system

51
Q

Three types of nerve cells

A

Sensory (from receptors to spinal cord and brain (afferent)) interneruons (linked to reflexive behavior) Motor neurons (from brain and spinal cord to muscles (efferent))
A comes before E. Sensory before Motor

52
Q

Reflex Arcs

A

Shortcut over interneurons to save the body from damage

53
Q

Somatic

A

Voluntary control

54
Q

Autonomic

A

Involuntary control. Divided into symp and parasympathetic system

55
Q

Sympathetic

A

Activated by Stress, fight or flight. Secretion of adrenaline. Dilate pupils. Bronchi are relaxed, accelerates heartbeat. sweating. stimulates glucose production. inhibit bladder activity.

56
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Conserve energy- rest and digest. Constricts bronchi, slows heartbeat, stimulates flow of saliva. contracts bladder, constricts pupils

57
Q

Prosencephalon (forebrain)

A

Telencephalon Diencephalon Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes

58
Q

Mesencephalon (midbrain)

A

midbrain- sensorimotor reflex

59
Q

Rhombencephalon (hind brain)

A

Metencephalon and Mylencephalon. Balance, motor , breathing and digestion

60
Q

Three regions of hindbrain

A

Pons (relays info and regulates sleep) Medulla oblongata (regulates breathing , heartbeat and blood pressure) Cerebellum Posture, balance and body movements.

61
Q

Mid Brain

A

Superior (receives visual sensory input) Inferior colliculus (auditory )

62
Q

Neuropsychological studies

A

Animal studies - Ablation or electode stimulus. 2. Electrode stimulation- stimulate with electrical activity. 3. EEG- electrodes to detect electrical activity. 4. rCBF Detect blood flow to parts of the brain- visualize where blood flow is being diverted through soft tissue imaging

63
Q

Pons regulate

A

sleep

64
Q

Forebrain telencephalon

A

Cerebral cortex, basal gangilia, and limbic system.

65
Q

Forebrain - Diencephalon

A

Endocrine

66
Q

Thalamus Forebrain Diencephalon

A

Relay station, receives all senses but smell. Sorts and transmits impulses. It is the WAY station.

67
Q

Hypothalamus Forebrain Diencephalon

A

Regulation of homeostasis and emotional experience. Endocrine function that regulates autonomic system. The 4 Fs.
Lateral Hypothalamus- triggers eating and drinking.
Ventromedial Hypo- Satiety center.
Anterior Hypothalamus- Controls sexual behavior

68
Q

Posterior Pituitary - Diencephalon Anterior is NOT FROM THIS

A

Releases ADH and oxytocin

69
Q

Pineal Gland- Diencephalon

A

Circadian rhythm

70
Q

Basal Ganglia- Telencephalon

A

Coordinating muscle movement. Relays info from CNS to muscles. Malfunctions in this area are Parkinson’s disease- uncontrollable jerky movements and resting tremors. Schizophrenia and OCD.

71
Q

Limbic System- Telencephalon

A

Group of interconnected structures- emotions and memory. Hippocampus- important for memory and learning. Amygdala- emotion and memory

72
Q

Cerebral Cortex - Telencephalon

A

Frontal- Executive functioning. Parietal Lobe- Spatial processing. Occipital lobe- visual. Temporal lobe- auditory, emotional control and language.
Somatosensory Cortex- receives sensory stimuli by PNS and processes how we want to respond (in parietal lobe).
Motor Cortex- sends signals down spinal cord (it is in the frontal lobe).

73
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

Connects left and right hemispheres.

74
Q

Laterality

A

Dominant/ Left brain . Ipsilateral (left side / right site hearing) Movement is contralateral.

75
Q

Central Nervous System- Dopamine

A

Activates reward circuit. Addictive behavior

76
Q

Serotonin-CNS

A

Mood sleep, eating and dreaming

77
Q

GABA-CNS

A

Brain Stabilizer

78
Q

Endorphins-CNS

A

Painkillers

79
Q

Epinephrine- PNS

A

Fight or Flight responses

80
Q

Norepipnephrine- PNS

A

Wakefulness and alertness

81
Q

Both CNS and PNS - Acetylcholine

A

In the PNS (voluntary muscle control and in CNS (attention and arousal

82
Q

Endocrine System- Hypothalamus

A

Controls release of anterior pit. and synthesizes hormones for posterior pituitary

83
Q

Hypophyseal Portal System

A

Anterior Pituitary (portal vein)

84
Q

Adrenal Medullla

A

Release of epi and noripi

85
Q

Adrenal Cortex

A

Cortisol and sex hormones

86
Q

Gonads

A

Estrogen and testosterone

87
Q

As Iris becomes smaller.. the pupils become

A

larger

88
Q

Lens

A

focuses light

89
Q

Retina

A

Image detector

90
Q

Rods

A

Have nucleus and synapse oriented toward the front of the eye. They have rhodopsin pigment. Low sensitivity to detail, permit night vision. No color

91
Q

Cones

A

Shorter membrane shelf w/ mitochondria, nucleus and synapse. 3 pigments sensitive to color and detail. Concentrated at fovea. there are 20x more rod cells than cones in the retina. The fovea is exclusive for cone cells

92
Q

Bipolar cells

A

direct input from rods/ cones, affected by amacrine cells and horizontal cells. Edge detection and contrasts.

93
Q

Ganglion cells

A

info from many cells that group together to go to optic nerve

94
Q

Nasal fibers cross at the

A

optic chiasm- everything in our right visual field will be processed in left hemisphere and vice versa.

95
Q

Visual Processing

A

Lateral geniculate nucleus, visual cortex and superior colliculus

96
Q

Parallel processing

A

ability to identify characteristics, apply characteristics to a memory, recall a word to describe the object.

97
Q

Feature detection

A

recognition of features, identify desired object in visual field.

98
Q

Visual pathway

A

Visual Input– focused through cornea, pupil and lens of eye— transformed to electrical signals in retina– electrical signal— bipolar , amacrine– ganglion – optic nerve– optic chiasm– processed in LGN, visual cortex and superior colliculus

99
Q

Outer ear

A

Auricle, earlobe, external auditory canal, tympanic membrane (eardrum). Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Frequency (rev/s) determines pitch. Amplitude determines intensity of the sound.

100
Q

Middle ear

A

Ossicles- malleus (direct contact wtih tympanic membrane) incus, and stapes (lies on oval window). Vibration passes into inner ear. The Middle ear is connected to eustacian tube which equalizes pressure between middle ear and environment.

101
Q

Inner Ear

A
  1. Vestibule . 2 Coclea = hearing apparatus hair cells perform signal transduction Vibrations transduced to nerve impluses. Fluid media (separated by membranes) Includes Perilymph which cushions structures and transmits vibrations and Endolymph which bathes hair cells.
102
Q

Cochlia (inner ear)

A

3 fluid filled chambers. Basilar membrane, tectoral membrane (immobile) and Hair cells are attached to basilar membrane. Have mechanosensory receptors. Hair cells translate into nerve impulse on auditory nerve.

103
Q

Hair cells deplarize when the tufts of cilia bend upon coming into contact with which immobile structure in the inner ear?

A

Tectoral MEmbrane

104
Q

Semicircular Canals

A

Sensitive to rotational acceleration. XY and Z axis.

105
Q

Vestibule

A

Sensitive to lenear acceleration, affects balance and orienataiton in space.

106
Q

Auditory Pathway

A

Auditory Input – auditory nerve – superior olive – inferior colliculus – medial geniculate nucleus – temporal cortex

107
Q

Smell

A

Olfactory chemoreceptors- large number of specific types- located in olfactory epithelium - trasmit signal to olfactory bulb- pheromones alsl bind olfactory chemoreceptors, influence behavior. Sense of smell is not directed into thalamus.

108
Q

Taste

A

Chemoreceptors on tongue, found in papillae. Types of taste- sourness- acid. Saltiness- alkali metals. Umami (savoriness). Sweetness. Bitterness .

109
Q

Somatosensation

A

Four modalities- pressure vibration temperature and nociception pain. Two point threshold (minimum distance between 2 points in order to be perceived as 2 distinct stimuli). Physiological zero (temperature near body temp, above which things feel “hot”, below which things feel cold.

110
Q

Kinesthetic Sense

A

Ability to know where limbs are in space. also is called proprioception.

111
Q

A weight lifter lifts a 275 kg barbell from the ground to a height of 2.4 m. How much work has he done in lifting the barbell, and how much work is required to hold the weight at that height?

A

W=Fdcostheta. F= 275x 10 m/s2= 2750N. d= 2.4 m. cos 0= 1.

To get the barbell at that height it required 6468 J of energy and 0 J when at rest because at rest there is no displacement.

112
Q

A 2000 kg experimental car can accelerate from 0 to 30 m/s in 6 s. What is the average power of the engine needed to achieve this acceleration?

A

The work done by the engine is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the car. W= 1/2m(vf^2-vi^2). The average power therefore is P= W/t. 900,000J/6 s= 150,000 W or 150 kW.

113
Q

A 40 kg block is resting at a height of 5 m off the ground. If the block is released and falls to the ground, which of the following is closest to its total mechanical energy at a height of 2m , assuming negligable air resistance?

A

Total mechanical energy. E= U + K. At rest, U= mgh= 40(10)(5)= 2000J. At any point on this descent, U=K , so at a height of 2m, it would still have 2000J of mechanical energy since it is not lost.

114
Q

5m^3 of a gas are brought from an initial pressure of 1kPa to a pressure of 3 kPa through an isochoric process. During this process, the work performed by the gas is:

A

0J. Since the process is isochoric, the volume does not change and therefore the gas doesnt expand or compress so no work is done by the gas.

115
Q

Why is gravity a conservative force?

A

Because it is pathway independent and it does not dissipate mechanical energy. For example, air resistance and friction are nonconservative because they dissipate thermal energy.

116
Q

In uniform circular motion, the displacement vector and force vector are always perpendicular. So is work done?

A

No work is done. Potential energy is constant for an object in uniform circular motion, whether it is the gravitational potential energy of a satellite orbiting the earth or the electical potential energy of an electron orbiting the nucleus of an atom. In both cases, potential energy does not change and does not depend on the position of the object around the circle.

117
Q

The total work done on any object is equal to the change in kinetic energy for that object characterizes what theorum?

A

Work energy theorum

118
Q

A massless spring initially compressed by displacement of 2 cm is now compressed by 4 cm. How has the potential energy of this system changed?

A

It has quadrupled, by the formula U= 1/2kx^2

119
Q

Terminal velocity

A

The force of gravity and force of air resistance are equal in magnitude, leading to transitional equilibrium

120
Q

Mechanical advantage and efficiency

A

Mechanical advantage is a ratio of the output force generated given a particular input force. Efficiency is a ratio of the useful work performed by a system compared to the work performed on the system.

121
Q

If the gravitational potential energy of an object has doubled in the absence of nonconservative forces, which of the following must be true, assuming the total mechanical energy of the object is constant?

A

The kinetic energy has decreased by the same quantity that the potential energy has increased.

Nicole mcat (23 decks)

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