Random Flashcards
IR SPEC
Bond
Frequency
Intensity
C=O 1680-1735 strong
C=C 1680-1620 variable
CtripleC 2260-2100 variable
CtripleN 2260-2220 variable
C-H 3300-2700 variable
N-H 3150-2500 moderate
O-H 3650-3200 broad
Skeptic
Person inclined to question or doubt all accepted positions
Critic
Expressing unfavorable opinion of something
Indubitable
Cannot be doubted, unquestionable
Amide
o=CNH2
Imine
C=N
Object placed in liquid will displace
an equal mass of fluid ( if it floats) and an equal volume (if it sinks)
Heat Curve
Since the chart has areas where temp is changing and not changing we need two separate equations. In places on the chart where temp is changing we use q = mcdT (since dT would be non-zero). But if we use the same equation at a phase change point (eg at 0 C where ice melts or vice versa) then dT = 0 and it would indicate that no heat is being transferred. But in order to melt ice heat NEEDS to be transferred to break bonds. It just so happens that they dont change temperature at that phase change. So at those points we use q = mL (or as I like to call it, q = nH since n = moles and H = enthalpy since those are the units you need).
Isothermal
no change in temp
isobaric
no change in pressure
isovolumetric
no change in volume
adiabatic
no heat in or out of system
VAT
Vf= Vo + at
VAX
Vf^2= Vo^2 + 2a delta (x)
TAX
delta x= vot + 1/2 at^2
Newton SI Unit
kg meters/ seconds squared
Electric Field SI Unit
Newton/ Coulomb
The Limbic System
Set of structures residing below the cerebrum on either side of the thalamus
Parts of the Limbic System
Amygdala (small round structure, signals cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotion Fear - Emotion through interpretation of facial expressions). 2 Thalamus (preliminary sensory processing station and routes info to the cortex and other areas of the brain). Hypothalamus (synthesizes and releases NT, homeostatic and modulates emotion) 4. Hippocampus (LT memory)
Formation of Memory Explicit Vs Implicit
Explicit- memory about emotion. Implicit- Emotional Memory
Retrieval of Memory Explicit Vs Implicit
Explicit Consious memory of event Implicit- Expression of emotional responses.
Prefrontal Cortex
Anterior portion of frontal lobe with planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality and making decisions
Stress
Challenging events, physical , emotional cognitive and behavioral.
Cognitive appraisal, primary and secondary appraisal
Cognitive appraisal is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress. pirmary appraisal = initial evaluation of environment and associated threat. Can be identified as irrelevant, benign, or stressful. If it is a threat then secondary appraisal begins in which we assess if we can cope with the stress
Types of stressors
Environment, workplace, social etc. Distressors are unpleasent stressors and Eustress is Positive conditions such as graduating or a high MCAT score
Physiological response to stressors
Sympathetic Nervous System. General Adaptation Syndrome is a sequence of physiological resonses in 3 distinct stages (Alarm [initial rxn to a stressor and activation of SNS- could involve hypothalamus to stimulate pituitary to secrete ACTH which acts on adrenal glands- make cortisol. Hypothalamus can also stimulate the adrenal medulla to release epi and norepi to activate SNS]. 2 Resistance- involves continuous release of hormones, SNS engaged to fight teh stressor. 3. Exhaustion- Cant maintain elevated response from SNS))
Coping with stress strategies
1 Problem- Focused, working to overcome stressor, making a plan. 2 Emotionally focused- changing feelings about a stressor. Coping can be adaptive (reach out for support) or maladapative ( drugs and alchol).
Disaccharides
form as a result of glycosidic bonding between two monosaccharide subunits; polysaccharides form by repeated monosaccharide or polysaccharide glycosidic bonding
Common disaccharides
Sucrose ( glucose a 1.2 fructose) Lactose (galactose B 1-4 glucose) Maltose (glucose a 14 glucose)
Monosaccharides
single carbohydrate units with glucose as the most commonly observed monomer. they can undergo three main reactions. oxidation reduction, esterification, and glycoside formation.
Aldoses can be oxidized to ___ and reduced to ___
oxidized to aldonic acids and reduced to alditols
Sugars that can be oxidized are ___ themselves, and can be detected by reacting with ___ or ___ reagents
sugars that can be oxidized are reducing agents themselves and can be detected by reacting with tollens or benedicts reagents
LiAlH4 is a
reducing agent
By reducing an aldose you get an
alditol (alcohol)
Planar hybridization
sp2
Conjugation
Conjugated double bonds in a molecule, mean that the single and double bonds alternate. These enables the electrons to be delocalised over the whole system and so be shared by many atoms. This means that the delocalised electrons may move around the whole system.
Lac operon
Is inducible because it is always off but we can induce it to turn on. Inducer binds to the repressor to free the operator region
Trp operon
Is repressible because it is always on. We are only going to supress it if we have enough of the food source and we dont need it. In the presence of co-repressor (tryptophan) it binds to the repressor to bind the operator
ACTH is released by
anterior pituitary
Cortisol release
adrenal cortex
Franz Gall
Phenology. If a particular trait was well developed the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand
Franz Gall
Behavior, intellect and personality linked to brain anatomy
Pierre Flourens
Functions of major sections of brains. By extirpation. Parts of the brain are surgically removed and behavior consequences were observed (ablation) conclusion : each area has specific functions
Functionalism
William James and John Dewey. James= how the brain adapts to environment. Dewey = organism as a whole as it is functioned to adapt to the environment. Functionalism (psychology- how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment)
Paul Broca
Linked specific deficits to specific brain lesions. Broca’s area- a major language center
Helmholtz
Measured speed of a nerve impsulse. Transition of psychology to neuroscience
Sir Charles Sherrington
Inferred the existence of synapses
Phrenology
Well developed traits led to expansion of specific part of the brain (proven incorrect)
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic and Autonomic nervous system. Autonomic nervous system (parasym and symp)
Is the thalamus in the central or peripheral nervous system
central nervous system
Three types of nerve cells
Sensory (from receptors to spinal cord and brain (afferent)) interneruons (linked to reflexive behavior) Motor neurons (from brain and spinal cord to muscles (efferent))
A comes before E. Sensory before Motor
Reflex Arcs
Shortcut over interneurons to save the body from damage
Somatic
Voluntary control
Autonomic
Involuntary control. Divided into symp and parasympathetic system
Sympathetic
Activated by Stress, fight or flight. Secretion of adrenaline. Dilate pupils. Bronchi are relaxed, accelerates heartbeat. sweating. stimulates glucose production. inhibit bladder activity.
Parasympathetic
Conserve energy- rest and digest. Constricts bronchi, slows heartbeat, stimulates flow of saliva. contracts bladder, constricts pupils
Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Telencephalon Diencephalon Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
midbrain- sensorimotor reflex
Rhombencephalon (hind brain)
Metencephalon and Mylencephalon. Balance, motor , breathing and digestion
Three regions of hindbrain
Pons (relays info and regulates sleep) Medulla oblongata (regulates breathing , heartbeat and blood pressure) Cerebellum Posture, balance and body movements.
Mid Brain
Superior (receives visual sensory input) Inferior colliculus (auditory )
Neuropsychological studies
Animal studies - Ablation or electode stimulus. 2. Electrode stimulation- stimulate with electrical activity. 3. EEG- electrodes to detect electrical activity. 4. rCBF Detect blood flow to parts of the brain- visualize where blood flow is being diverted through soft tissue imaging
Pons regulate
sleep
Forebrain telencephalon
Cerebral cortex, basal gangilia, and limbic system.
Forebrain - Diencephalon
Endocrine
Thalamus Forebrain Diencephalon
Relay station, receives all senses but smell. Sorts and transmits impulses. It is the WAY station.
Hypothalamus Forebrain Diencephalon
Regulation of homeostasis and emotional experience. Endocrine function that regulates autonomic system. The 4 Fs.
Lateral Hypothalamus- triggers eating and drinking.
Ventromedial Hypo- Satiety center.
Anterior Hypothalamus- Controls sexual behavior
Posterior Pituitary - Diencephalon Anterior is NOT FROM THIS
Releases ADH and oxytocin
Pineal Gland- Diencephalon
Circadian rhythm
Basal Ganglia- Telencephalon
Coordinating muscle movement. Relays info from CNS to muscles. Malfunctions in this area are Parkinson’s disease- uncontrollable jerky movements and resting tremors. Schizophrenia and OCD.
Limbic System- Telencephalon
Group of interconnected structures- emotions and memory. Hippocampus- important for memory and learning. Amygdala- emotion and memory
Cerebral Cortex - Telencephalon
Frontal- Executive functioning. Parietal Lobe- Spatial processing. Occipital lobe- visual. Temporal lobe- auditory, emotional control and language.
Somatosensory Cortex- receives sensory stimuli by PNS and processes how we want to respond (in parietal lobe).
Motor Cortex- sends signals down spinal cord (it is in the frontal lobe).
Corpus Callosum
Connects left and right hemispheres.
Laterality
Dominant/ Left brain . Ipsilateral (left side / right site hearing) Movement is contralateral.
Central Nervous System- Dopamine
Activates reward circuit. Addictive behavior
Serotonin-CNS
Mood sleep, eating and dreaming
GABA-CNS
Brain Stabilizer
Endorphins-CNS
Painkillers
Epinephrine- PNS
Fight or Flight responses
Norepipnephrine- PNS
Wakefulness and alertness
Both CNS and PNS - Acetylcholine
In the PNS (voluntary muscle control and in CNS (attention and arousal
Endocrine System- Hypothalamus
Controls release of anterior pit. and synthesizes hormones for posterior pituitary
Hypophyseal Portal System
Anterior Pituitary (portal vein)
Adrenal Medullla
Release of epi and noripi
Adrenal Cortex
Cortisol and sex hormones
Gonads
Estrogen and testosterone
As Iris becomes smaller.. the pupils become
larger
Lens
focuses light
Retina
Image detector
Rods
Have nucleus and synapse oriented toward the front of the eye. They have rhodopsin pigment. Low sensitivity to detail, permit night vision. No color
Cones
Shorter membrane shelf w/ mitochondria, nucleus and synapse. 3 pigments sensitive to color and detail. Concentrated at fovea. there are 20x more rod cells than cones in the retina. The fovea is exclusive for cone cells
Bipolar cells
direct input from rods/ cones, affected by amacrine cells and horizontal cells. Edge detection and contrasts.
Ganglion cells
info from many cells that group together to go to optic nerve
Nasal fibers cross at the
optic chiasm- everything in our right visual field will be processed in left hemisphere and vice versa.
Visual Processing
Lateral geniculate nucleus, visual cortex and superior colliculus
Parallel processing
ability to identify characteristics, apply characteristics to a memory, recall a word to describe the object.
Feature detection
recognition of features, identify desired object in visual field.
Visual pathway
Visual Input– focused through cornea, pupil and lens of eye— transformed to electrical signals in retina– electrical signal— bipolar , amacrine– ganglion – optic nerve– optic chiasm– processed in LGN, visual cortex and superior colliculus
Outer ear
Auricle, earlobe, external auditory canal, tympanic membrane (eardrum). Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Frequency (rev/s) determines pitch. Amplitude determines intensity of the sound.
Middle ear
Ossicles- malleus (direct contact wtih tympanic membrane) incus, and stapes (lies on oval window). Vibration passes into inner ear. The Middle ear is connected to eustacian tube which equalizes pressure between middle ear and environment.
Inner Ear
- Vestibule . 2 Coclea = hearing apparatus hair cells perform signal transduction Vibrations transduced to nerve impluses. Fluid media (separated by membranes) Includes Perilymph which cushions structures and transmits vibrations and Endolymph which bathes hair cells.
Cochlia (inner ear)
3 fluid filled chambers. Basilar membrane, tectoral membrane (immobile) and Hair cells are attached to basilar membrane. Have mechanosensory receptors. Hair cells translate into nerve impulse on auditory nerve.
Hair cells deplarize when the tufts of cilia bend upon coming into contact with which immobile structure in the inner ear?
Tectoral MEmbrane
Semicircular Canals
Sensitive to rotational acceleration. XY and Z axis.
Vestibule
Sensitive to lenear acceleration, affects balance and orienataiton in space.
Auditory Pathway
Auditory Input – auditory nerve – superior olive – inferior colliculus – medial geniculate nucleus – temporal cortex
Smell
Olfactory chemoreceptors- large number of specific types- located in olfactory epithelium - trasmit signal to olfactory bulb- pheromones alsl bind olfactory chemoreceptors, influence behavior. Sense of smell is not directed into thalamus.
Taste
Chemoreceptors on tongue, found in papillae. Types of taste- sourness- acid. Saltiness- alkali metals. Umami (savoriness). Sweetness. Bitterness .
Somatosensation
Four modalities- pressure vibration temperature and nociception pain. Two point threshold (minimum distance between 2 points in order to be perceived as 2 distinct stimuli). Physiological zero (temperature near body temp, above which things feel “hot”, below which things feel cold.
Kinesthetic Sense
Ability to know where limbs are in space. also is called proprioception.
A weight lifter lifts a 275 kg barbell from the ground to a height of 2.4 m. How much work has he done in lifting the barbell, and how much work is required to hold the weight at that height?
W=Fdcostheta. F= 275x 10 m/s2= 2750N. d= 2.4 m. cos 0= 1.
To get the barbell at that height it required 6468 J of energy and 0 J when at rest because at rest there is no displacement.
A 2000 kg experimental car can accelerate from 0 to 30 m/s in 6 s. What is the average power of the engine needed to achieve this acceleration?
The work done by the engine is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the car. W= 1/2m(vf^2-vi^2). The average power therefore is P= W/t. 900,000J/6 s= 150,000 W or 150 kW.
A 40 kg block is resting at a height of 5 m off the ground. If the block is released and falls to the ground, which of the following is closest to its total mechanical energy at a height of 2m , assuming negligable air resistance?
Total mechanical energy. E= U + K. At rest, U= mgh= 40(10)(5)= 2000J. At any point on this descent, U=K , so at a height of 2m, it would still have 2000J of mechanical energy since it is not lost.
5m^3 of a gas are brought from an initial pressure of 1kPa to a pressure of 3 kPa through an isochoric process. During this process, the work performed by the gas is:
0J. Since the process is isochoric, the volume does not change and therefore the gas doesnt expand or compress so no work is done by the gas.
Why is gravity a conservative force?
Because it is pathway independent and it does not dissipate mechanical energy. For example, air resistance and friction are nonconservative because they dissipate thermal energy.
In uniform circular motion, the displacement vector and force vector are always perpendicular. So is work done?
No work is done. Potential energy is constant for an object in uniform circular motion, whether it is the gravitational potential energy of a satellite orbiting the earth or the electical potential energy of an electron orbiting the nucleus of an atom. In both cases, potential energy does not change and does not depend on the position of the object around the circle.
The total work done on any object is equal to the change in kinetic energy for that object characterizes what theorum?
Work energy theorum
A massless spring initially compressed by displacement of 2 cm is now compressed by 4 cm. How has the potential energy of this system changed?
It has quadrupled, by the formula U= 1/2kx^2
Terminal velocity
The force of gravity and force of air resistance are equal in magnitude, leading to transitional equilibrium
Mechanical advantage and efficiency
Mechanical advantage is a ratio of the output force generated given a particular input force. Efficiency is a ratio of the useful work performed by a system compared to the work performed on the system.
If the gravitational potential energy of an object has doubled in the absence of nonconservative forces, which of the following must be true, assuming the total mechanical energy of the object is constant?
The kinetic energy has decreased by the same quantity that the potential energy has increased.
