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2H03 > Quiz 3 > Flashcards

Quiz 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What do concepts allow us to do?

A
  • apply general knowledge to new cases
  • draw broad conclusions from experiences
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2
Q

concept of dog

A

how do you know what a dog is?
why do you have expectations when you know that a creature is a dog?

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3
Q

definitional- dog

A

an animal with four legs that barks and wags its tail

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4
Q

problem with the definitional approach

A

it is always possible to find exceptions to our defintions
- tables are flat surfaces with four legs- but what about a table with 3 legs

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5
Q

solution for definitional approach

A
  • focus on family resemblance of members within a category
  • no “defining” features
  • characteristic features across family members
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6
Q

characteristic features

A

e.g., brothers in the Smith family USUALLY have dark hair and glasses- key word is usually

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7
Q

prototype theory

A

the category is characterized by a central member that possesses all the characteristic features (the prototype)
- the most salient features creates one prototype
- does not have to be real

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8
Q

typicality

A

category membership is judged based on typicality

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9
Q

graded membership

A

objects close to a prototype are “better” members of the category than objects farther from the prototype

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10
Q

sentence verification task

A
  • used to test the prototype theory- based on how quick the response is
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11
Q

SVT- robins are birds

A

quick response as it is typical, or similar to the prototype of birds

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12
Q

SVT- penguins are birds

A

slower as it takes longer for the signal to travel because it is further from the prototype

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13
Q

distance and judgements correlation

A

judgements about items that are more distance from the prototype take more time to make

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14
Q

production task

A

-testing the prototype theory- based on category members
- fruits and birds
- participants generally name the most typical category members first- with faster response times

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15
Q

rating tasks

A

items that are closer to the prototype are rated as more typical of the category

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16
Q

fruit

A

when you think of fruit, you generally think about apples

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17
Q

basic level categories- bench

A

too general (superordinate)- furniture

in the middle- bench

too specific (subordinate)- the metal bench outside HSC

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18
Q

basic level categories

A
  • represented by a single word
  • default for naming objects
  • easy-to-explain commonalities
  • basic categories learned first
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19
Q

exemplar-based reasoning

A

in some cases, categorization relies on knowledge about specific category members (exemplars) rather than the prototype

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20
Q

prototypes vs. exemplars

A
  • prototypes provide an economical summary of the category
  • exemplars provide information about category variability, but less economical, and are easier to adjust the categories based on exemplars than prototypes
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21
Q

conceptual knowledge

A
  • a mix of exemplar and prototype
  • early learning often involves exemplars
  • experience often involves averaging exemplars and prototypes
  • with more experience, we can use both exemplars and prototypes to ascertain category membership and recognize objects.
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22
Q

typicality aides

A
  • can aide judgment in prototype/exemplar in category membership, but are often distinct.
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23
Q

atypical features

A
  • do not necessarily exclude category members
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24
Q

Greta Thunberg

A

is/was a highly atypical teenager

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25
Q

typical features

A

Presence of all typical features does not guarantee category membership

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26
Q

Children can agree that

A

a skunk cannot be turned into a raccoon
a toaster can be turned into a coffeeepot

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27
Q

beliefs and prior knowledge

A
  • belief in what is typical and required for category members is the most important
  • beliefs are developed through previous experiences
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28
Q

example of beliefs: santa

A

a person dressed as Santa is still a person
but some children may disagree because they have different beliefs

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29
Q

resemblance

A

similarity judgments based on resemblance can be uninformative- we can make mistakes

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30
Q

wall outlets example

A
  • if you focus on the right properties, faces and wall outlets are pretty much the same thing
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31
Q

essential properties

A

-we must base similarity judgement on important, essential properties

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32
Q

what is important/essential

A
  • based on your prior knowledge
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33
Q

typicality influences category judgments

A

we focus on the features that are important, using resemblance as well

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34
Q

typicality effects reveal the substantial role of prototypes and exemplars

A

helps us see the effect of having prototype, reaction time

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35
Q

when using a prototype or exemplar, you rely on a judgment of resemblance

A

fundamental to theory

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36
Q

that judgment of resemblance depends on other knowledge

A

which attributes to pay attention to? which attributes to ignore?

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37
Q

categorization enables us to

A

apply general knowledge to new cases (see a new dog but know how to approach it safely due to previous experiences)
draw broad conclusions from prior experiences (could have bad experiences with dog now fear dogs)

38
Q

inferences can be guided by

A

typicality (more likely to infer from typical case in typical category)
theories/broader beliefs (making connections based on observation using prior knowledge)

39
Q

Concepts can be characterized by

A

features
goal-derived categories
relational categories
event categories
natural kinds versus artifacts
living versus nonliving things

40
Q

embodied cognition

A

proposal that our concepts include representations of perceptual properties and motor sequences

41
Q

hub and spoke model

A

a “hub” connects and integrates more specialized information (the “spokes”) from other brain areas

42
Q

damage to the hub (anterior temporal lobe)

A

leads to loss of general knowledge- the category itself

43
Q

damage to the spoke (areas outside of atl)

A

leads to loss of specific knowledge- items within a category

44
Q

connecting concepts

A

a link between concepts is knowledge

45
Q

travelling the knowledge network

A

The knowledge we have is embedded within the links there is a push to remove redundancies.

If they all the same, common, characteristics, why create multiple nodes? You only need one.

There is different distances between different concepts, robin- is a bird, therefore can fly, concept of flying is further away from robin than it is to bird.

It should take time to activate the features that are further up. By recognizing links, we should predict the time is should take.

46
Q

some results are problematic with the travelling across network theory

A
  1. sentence verifications are faster if the sentence is about a more prototypical stimulus - a robin is close to the prototype, goose is further, longer to make judgments for geese.
  2. the principle of “nonredundancy” does not always hold- there are situations where the common feature seems to be redundantly replicated differently- peacocks, feature of feathers tightly linked, rather than robin
47
Q

propositions

A

the smallest unit of knowledge that can either true or false

48
Q

nodes

A

represent concepts and link to form complex concepts

49
Q

propositional networks

A

local representations- each node represents one concept or idea

50
Q

connectionist networks

A

distributed representations- each idea is represented by a pattern of activation across the network
parallel distributed processing (PDP)

51
Q

organization of language

A

sentence
phrase
word
morpheme
phoneme

52
Q

morpheme

A

smallest unit that carries meaning

53
Q

phoneme

A

smallest unit of sound, not carrying any meaning

54
Q

categorization of speech sounds based on:

A

voicing (using sounds)

manner of production (how the air flow is restricted)

place of articulation (where you position your lips and tongue)

55
Q

speech segmentation

A

the “slicing: of a continuous speech stream into appropriate segments

56
Q

coarticulation

A

in producing speech, adjacent phonemes overlap

57
Q

perception of speech

A

prior knowledge and expectations supplement the input

58
Q

regularly used vocabulary

A

surprisingly limited
not primed to hear long or infrequent words

59
Q

phonemic restoration effect

A

top-down processes change what people hear
nozzle vs novel brain activation

60
Q

gaps

A

you replace gaps between sounds with noise, but feel that the sound did not break, so you hear it in completeness

61
Q

context

A

aides word recognition

62
Q

categorical perception

A

people are better at hearing differences between categories of sound (g vs. k) than within sound categories (different pronunciations of d)

63
Q

combining phonemes

A

phonemes-morphemes-words

64
Q

only some combinations of phonemes are acceptable within a language

A

ex. the sequence tl is not acceptable within a syllable in English- it cannot make one sound

65
Q

rules for adjusting phonemes are based on combinations

A

ex. the s sound becomes a z in words like “bags”

66
Q

for each word that a speaker knows, the speaker”

A

knows the words sound
usually knows the meaning
knows the rules of syntax
knows the words semantics

67
Q

generativity

A

the capacity to create an endless series of new combinations from a small set of fundamental units

68
Q

combinations to align with syntax

A

when new words are created, they can be combined with other phonemes/morphemes to align with the languages syntax
ex. someone who “hacks” would be called a “hacker”

69
Q

syntax

A

rules that govern the structure of a phrase or sentence

70
Q

meaning does not depend on syntax

A

ex. “me hungry” can still be understood

71
Q

syntax does not depend on meaning

A

ex. “colourless green ideas sleep furiously” - Noam Chomsky- cannot be understood

72
Q

syntax

A

phrase structure:
noun phrase-verb phrase-noun phrase

73
Q

prescriptive rules

A

rules describing how something is “supposed to be” in the language
- preference, rules change with time, acceptance with saying new things

74
Q

descriptive rules

A

rules describing the language as it is ordinarily used by fluent speakers and listeners
ex. phrase-structure rules
constant- do not change

75
Q

parsing

A

the process of determining each others syntactic role in a sentence
occurs as you read/hear the words

76
Q

garden-path sentences

A

initially suggest an interpretation that turns out to be incorrect
ex. you need to revisit your parsing

77
Q

examples of garden-path sentences

A

the secretary applauded for his efforts was soon promoted.

the old man the ships.

The horse raced past the barn fell.

78
Q

interpretations are further influences by

A

function words
morphemes signalling syntactic roles (ex. “-ly” signals adverbs
background knowledge

78
Q

people tend to

A

seek the simplest interpretation
assume active-voice

79
Q

extralinguistic context

A

the physical and social setting in which we encounter sentences

80
Q

prosody

A

the patterns of pauses and pitch changes that characterize speech production

81
Q

pragmatic rules

A

rules that govern how people actually use language
ex. conversational “rules” expect you to be cooperative when conversing

82
Q

common ground

A

participants in conversations fill in gaps by drawing on their common ground
often established in early stages of conversation

83
Q

biology of language

A

fluent language seems to depend on innate neural machinery

84
Q

evidence of innate neural machinery

A

aphasias: nonfluent (Broca’s) vs. fluent (Wernicke’s)
most kids converse well at age 3-4
specific language impairment (interferes with the development of language skills in children do not have hearing loss, if there is no other cause)

85
Q

neural machinery seems to depend on language exposure

A

wild/wolf children
ex. Ramu who was raised by wolves
- we cannot remake this as it is unethical

86
Q

active learning

A

children are sensitive to patterns and regularities, deriving broad principles from what they hear
add “-ed” to make verb past tense by approx 3 years old

87
Q

overregularization error

A

an error in which a person perceives or remembers a word/event as being closer to the “norm” than it really is
ex. “yesterday, i thinked,” or “look at those cute gooses”

88
Q

linguistic relativity

A

the hypothesis that people who speak different languages think differently as a result
eg. a language’s colour vocabulary and categorization may affect how its speakers perceive and remember colour

89
Q

spatial terminology

A

absolute directions (east or west) versus relative directions (left or right)

90
Q

descriptions of events

A

active voice (sam made a mistake) versus passive voice (mistakes were made)
memory for agents in accidents

91
Q

bilingualism

A

children raised in bilingual homes learn both languages as quickly as monolingual children learn one language

tendency to have temporarily smaller vocabularies than monolingual children at an early age

expectation that bilingual children would confuse language has not been upheld

2H03 (7 decks)

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