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2H03 > Quiz 1 > Flashcards

Quiz 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The Cognitive Revolution

A

Cognitive psychology arose (1950s-60s) through introspection and behaviourism

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2
Q

Creation of Introspectionism (Structuralism)

A

Wilhelm Wundt in the late 1800s

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3
Q

Introspectionism (Structuralism)

A

Focus on studying one’s own conscious thoughts and experiences

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4
Q

Limitations of Introspectionism

A
  • Methods for studying mental events are not scientific.
  • You are the only person who can observe your own thoughts. We are only able to study what an individual tells you about, which can differ in intensities, words, etc.
  • People don’t have access to unconscious thoughts, meaning there are processes that we do not know about.
    -not able to test as a pure science
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5
Q

H.M. study

A

Had hippocampus removed (due to epilepsy) and could not form new memories

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6
Q

Behaviourism

A
  • Dominated psychology in America for the first half of the 20th century
  • Focused on observable behaviours and various stimuli
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7
Q

Behaviourism Limitations

A
  • To fully understand behaviour, we cannot ignore mental events
    -various stimuli evoke the same behaviour
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8
Q

Behaviourists

A

John Watson, Pavlov, B.F. Skinner

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9
Q

John Watson

A
  • The biggest advocate of behaviourism
  • “Give me a child, and I can train them to do anything.”
  • Worry more about what the individual is doing, not what is in the mind.
    -intrigued by babies behav and learning (e.g. grasping reflex)
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10
Q

Pavlov

A
  • Stimulus-response pair
  • Reward-punishment pairing for everything about us.
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11
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

Can stimulus-response pairs explain all behaviour?
- Conditioning is key

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12
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

The scientific study of how the mind encodes, stores, and uses information

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13
Q

Contributors to the revolution

A

Noam Chomsky, Edward Tolman, Claude Shannon, George Miller, Donald Broadbent

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14
Q

Ulric Neisser

A

-father of cognitive psychology
-book brought together a succession of topics that both summarized the content of new field and also set the research agenda for many years

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15
Q

Donald Broadbent

A
  • Built a filter model of attention.
  • Idea that information is filtered, helped us think about cognition in the same way we think about computers.
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16
Q

Noam Chomsky

A
  • Skinner’s description that children’s language development occurs via conditioning was criticized.
  • Children still develop language, there is just an inherent understanding of language (the human brain is made for it).
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17
Q

Edward Tolman

A
  • Demonstrated that reinforcement is not required for learning.
  • Example: food present vs. no food present, the rat was still able to navigate the maze without the food reward.
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18
Q

Transcendental method

A

-Kant
-sometimes called inference to best explanation
- Heavily influences the future study of psychology.
- Reasoning backward from observations to determine the cause (does not rest on direct observation)
- You don’t come up with an explanation and end it there; you use the scientific method to predict how the person will react in other situations in the future, then test it.

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19
Q

George Miller

A
  • Identified the amount of information people could store (7+/- 2).
  • An estimation of marbles thrown becomes more difficult and limited if over this amount.
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20
Q

Cognitive Science

A
  • Cognitive Science Hexagon
  • Psychology, Philosophy, Linguistics, Anthropology, Neuroscience, and Computer science all interact with each other.
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21
Q

Cognitive Psychology pt. 2

A
  • The focus of cognition ended up focusing on mental processes and events instead of the stimulus-response connection.
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22
Q

Examples of Cognitive Psychology

A
  • The process of knowing rather than merely responding to stimuli.
  • How the mind structures or organizes experiences.
  • How an individual actively and creatively arranges stimuli received from the environment.
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23
Q

Encoding

A
  • Getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing.
  • Selective attention
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24
Q

Storing

A
  • The process of placing newly acquired information into memory, which is modified in the brain for easier storage.
  • False memory
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25
Q

Using

A
  • The process of applying information from the memory in other experiences.
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26
Q

How is the mind an information processor?

A
  • Making sense of the information, aiming to understand mental representations.
  • Mental life is all about information- both internal and external sources (thoughts, emotions, etc.)
  • Can be abnormal.
    -used language borrowed from computer technology
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27
Q

Normal facial recognition systems

A
  1. Cognitive appraisal
  2. Emotional Appraisal
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28
Q

Claude Shannon

A
  • Demonstrated that the nature and processing of “information” itself could be studied and analyzed without consideration of the actual content of a message.
  • You convey any information through 0s and 1s alongside rules to interpret different patterns, observing whether different people interpret it differently.
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29
Q

Cognitive Appraisal

A

Compared to a template (this person looks like my dad, knows this as if he was my dad, and he has a beard because it has been a while since I have seen him).

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30
Q

Cognition partners with….

A

-cognitive neuroscience
-clinical neuropsychology

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31
Q

Emotional Appraisal

A

Emotional response in their presence

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32
Q

Capgras Syndrome

A

Patients can recognize loved ones, but patients think that they are imposters.

Emotional Appraisal is absent/dysfunctional (they can recognize the face, but don’t get emotional warmth from the person, which leads to confusion.

Linked with amygdala and prefrontal cortex damage (additionally w/ damage to the right side of the temporal lobe)

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33
Q

How does researching cognition work?

A

-scientific method
-data collection can be done in forms of performance (e.g. accuracy) & response time (e.g. speed)

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34
Q

Brain organization

A
  1. Structural
  2. Functional
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35
Q

Structural Organization

A

The brain has physically distinct structures

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36
Q

Functional Organization

A

Different brain regions do different things

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37
Q

Phineas Gage

A

Had the weapon go through his eye socket, altered personality

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38
Q

Hind Brain

A

Top of the spinal cord (brain stem)

Key life functions (breathing, walking, balance, posture)

Includes: Cerebellum, pons, medulla

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39
Q

Cerebellum

A

Largest region of the hind brain, involved in coordinating complete thoughts

Damage to this area could result in problems in spatial reasoning, discriminating sounds, integrating the input received from various sensory systems

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40
Q

Midbrain

A

Coordinating precise eye movement

Relaying auditory information from ears to forebrain

Regulating pain experiences

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41
Q

Forebrain

A

Includes the cortex, four lobes, subcortical structures

Cortex: Outer surface of the forebrain

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42
Q

Subcortical Parts of Forebrain

A

Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Limbic System, Amygdala, Hippocampus

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43
Q

Thalamus

A

sensory relay station

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44
Q

Hypothalamus

A

controls behaviours that serve specific biological needs

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45
Q

Limbic system

A

emotion, fight or flight behaviours

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46
Q

Amygdala

A

emotional processing (fear)

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47
Q

Hippocampus

A

learning and memory

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48
Q

Left and right hemispheres

A

Connected via several commissures (bundles of axons), including the corpus callosum

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49
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

ensures both sides of the brain can communicate and send signals to each other

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50
Q

Split-brain

A

occurs when the corpus callosum is severed

the left and the right brain no longer interact, this can give us an idea of what takes place more on each side

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51
Q

KEY Fissures

A

Longitudinal fissure: running from the front of the brain to the back, and separating the left cerebral hemisphere from the right

Central fissure: divides frontal lobes on each side of the brain from the parietal lobes

Lateral fissure: divides frontal lobes from temporal lobes

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52
Q

Ways of studying the brain

A

Neuropsychology

Neuroimaging

Electrical Recordings

Manipulation of brain function

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53
Q

Neuropsychology

A

studying the behavioural impact of brain damage

damage can be natural (stroke) or unnatrual (hit in the head/surgery).

need to identify overlapping regions

e.g. regions identified this way:
Broca’s area
Wernicke’s area

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54
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Broken words, unable to speak with actual words

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55
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

Broken sentences, can produce full words but meaningless sentences

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56
Q

Neuroimaging

A

Structural and Functional

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57
Q

Structural Neuroimaging

A

Computerized axial tomography (CT) scans

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans-

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58
Q

CT scans

A

basically x-rays to get full 3D image of the brain, radioactive exposure

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59
Q

MRI scans

A

measures water content throughout the brain to show what it looks like

60
Q

Functional neuroimaging

A

Positron emission tomography (PET) scans

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans

61
Q

PET scans

A

Ingest radioactive isotope through glucose, they are able to trace where there is more activity
PRO: quick

62
Q

fMRI scans

A

Better type of imaging, but takes longer and is more expensive, measures where the brains oxygen is going, when it gets deoxygenated. Blood flow, good way to track where activity is occuring.

63
Q

Electrical Recordings- Communication between neurons is chemical

A

Neurons communicate with one another via neurotransmitters

64
Q

Electrical Recordings- Communication within a neuron is electrical

A

“Input: end of a neuron receives neurotransmitters; “output” end releases neurotransmitters.
An electrical impulse conveys the signal from the input end to the output end.

65
Q

Electrical Recordings- EEG

A

Electroencephalogram

66
Q

EEG

A

Recording of the electrical communication within neurons.
Used to study: broad rhythms (eg. sleep stages), and event-related potentials (ERPs)
Relying on signals occurring at the same time

67
Q

EEG comparison

A

strength: temporally locating neural activity (when?)
weakness: spatially locating neural activity (where?)
Therefore, you can locate when, not where. There is a general sense of where it is occurring. Relying on many neurons.

68
Q

fMRI comparison

A

strength: spatially locating neural activity (where?)
weakness: temporally locating neural activity (when?)

69
Q

How to overcome limitations

A

combine techniques

70
Q

Other techniques

A

Chemical effects on neurotransmitters (eg. drugs)

Electrical stimulation (eg. TMS, tCDS)

Gene manipulation (eg. CRISPR)

71
Q

TMS- transcranial magnetic stimulation

A

temporarily disrupt brain activity using focal magnetic pulses targeted over different areas of the scalp

correlation does not equal causation, we can use TMS to find cause

Specific parts of the brain, shooting positive or negative impulses, you can cause peoples fingers to move using the motor control, or interrupt spatial

72
Q

tCDS- transcranial direct current stimulation

A

Increases or decreases the likelihood of neuronal firing

73
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

largest portion of the human brain

thin layer of tissue covering the cerebrum (i.e. forebrain)

74
Q

regions of the cerebral cortex:

A
  • motor areas
  • sensory areas
  • association areas
75
Q

Motor Area

A

More cortical coverage reflects greater motor precision

76
Q

Primary sensory projection areas

A

arrival points in the motor cortex for signals from the sensory

77
Q

Primary motor projection areas

A

departure points in the motor cortex for signals that control muscle movement

78
Q

Contralateral control

A

Left side of the brain controls right side of body visa versa

79
Q

Sensory Areas

A

areas in the cortex that receive and process the information obtained from the sense organs (somatosensory, primary audio cortex, primary visual cortex)

cortical space assigned based on acuity

contralateral organization

80
Q

Somatosensory area

A

skin sensations

81
Q

Primary auditory cortex

A

auditory sensations

82
Q

Primary visual cortex

A

visual sensations

83
Q

Association areas

A

approximately 75% of the cerebral cortex, with specialized sibregions, damage to which can result in apraxia, agnosia, unilateral neglect syndrome, and aphasia

84
Q

Apraxia

A

difficulty with coordination

85
Q

Agnosia

A

problems of identifying

86
Q

Unilateral neglect syndrome

A

neglect half of sensory world

87
Q

Aphasia

A

problems with language

88
Q

Brain composition

A

neurons and glia

89
Q

Neurons

A

transmit signal via action potentials (within a neuron) and neurotransmitters (between neurons)

90
Q

Parts of the neuron

A

dendrites, cell body, axon

91
Q

Dendrites

A

detect incoming signals from other neurons

92
Q

Cell body

A

contains the nucleus and cellular machinery

93
Q

Axon

A

transmits signals to other neurons

94
Q

Glia

A

guide development of nervous system

repair damage in the nervous system

control nutrient flow to neurons

electrical insulation

95
Q

Synapse

A

neurotransmitters change the postsynaptic membrane

96
Q

Action potential

A

if there is sufficient ionic flow to surpass the cell’s threshold, an action potential is produced.

97
Q

All-or-none Law

A

an action potential is always of the same magnitude.

signal frequency can differ depending on the stimulus

98
Q

How do neurons represent different information?

A

specific neurons can, in some cases, represent specific stimuli.

“pattern coding” or distributed representation

most of the information is encoded by the firing rates of the neurons

99
Q

Why is vision important

A

vision is the dominant sense in humans

more brain area is devoted to vision than the other senses

when vision vs. anything else, vision usually wins

100
Q

Photoreceptors

A

rods and cones

101
Q

Rods

A
  • low levels of light
  • low acuity
  • no colour sensitivity
  • periphery only
102
Q

Cones

A
  • high levels of light
  • high acuity
  • high colour sensitivity
  • mostly fovea
103
Q

Visual system

A
  1. Photoreceptors
  2. Bipolar cells
  3. Ganglion cells
  4. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus
  5. Area V1 of the occipital lobe.
104
Q

Signal convergence in the fovea

A

there are a lot of photoreceptors, low signal convergence, therefore clear vision on what we are focusing on.

105
Q

Signal convergence in the peripheries

A

there is a lot of signal convergence occurring, represented by the same photoreceptor, which leads to the blurriness of what we are not focusing on.

106
Q

Lateral Inhibition

A

when cells are stimulated, they inhibit the activity of neighbouring cells (reduces the likelihood of neighbouring cells to be activated)- leading to edge enhancement

you have a set of neurons that are extremely excited and weakly inhibited and a set of neurons that are weakly excited and excitedly inhibited.

107
Q

Edge enhancement

A

an image processing filter that enhances the edge contrast of an image to improve its apparent sharpness
e.g. colour gradient- lighter on one side, darker on the other, but is actually a uniform colour

108
Q

How does activity in the nervous system represent the stimulus?

A

single-cell recordings provide insight

109
Q

receptive fields and firing rate

A

their firing rate depends on the stimulus

110
Q

Center-surround

A

if light in area, it will activate, depends on where in the receptive field

111
Q

Convergence

A

responsive properties determines how a single neuron can respond differently to different locations.

112
Q

Receptive fields

A

can be specialized for one or combos of
- orientation (edge detectors)
- angles
- motions and direction (“movement detectors”)
- corners

the less similar a stimulus is to the cell’s preferred stimulus, the less often the cell fires

113
Q

Jennifer Aniston

A

highly specialized neurons fired when seeing her face due to watching FRIENDS

114
Q

advantages of parallel processing in the visual system

A
  1. speed and efficiency
  2. mutual influence among multiple systems
115
Q

mutual influence among multiple systems

A

resolves contradictory demands
ie. having expectations: you have experience reading it, so when you take your glasses off you can still read it, but if it is a slide you have not seen, you will be unable to read it without glasses.

116
Q

MT

A

processes motion

117
Q

Faulty MT

A

causes Akinetopsia

118
Q

Akinetopsia

A

could be caused by stroke, neurodegeneration, injury, etc.

it is debilitating- motion is gone

creates basically snapshots, is not smooth motion, there is glitching
ex. pouring coffee and watching traffic

119
Q

Parallel processing

A

what and where system

120
Q

what system

A

ventral- inferotemporal cortex

aids in identification of visual objects

damage can cause visual agnosia

121
Q

where system

A

dorsal- posterior parietal cortex

aids in perception of an objects location

damage can cause difficulties reaching for objects

122
Q

The binding problem

A

the task of reuniting elements of a stimulus that were addressed by different systems in different brain regions- how are they coordinated

123
Q

Solving the binding problem

A

spatial position, neural synchrony, and attention

124
Q

spatial position

A

overlay map of “which forms are where” with a map of “which colours are where,” “which motions are where,” etc.

these things are happening at the same time, so they must be connected

125
Q

neural synchrony

A

attributes are registered as belonging to the same object if the neurons detecting these attributes fire in synchrony

if neurons are firing at the same exact time, it is very rare that independent events are causing this, the activity must be related

126
Q

Form perception

A

binding leads us to come across ambiguous information

perception of a stimulus is beyond the information given:
- reversible/ambiguous figures
- figure/ground organization
- your brain can only acknowledge one of these perspectives at a time

127
Q

Gestalt psychologists

A

the perceptual whole is often different than the sum of its parts

128
Q

most stimuli are somehow ambiguous

A

majority is obstructed, but we are able to see that there are still mangos, we are able to separate the background and foreground easily, always interpreting our visual world and filling in information.

129
Q

Gestalt principles

A

help us organize the world: our ability to interpret ambiguous scenes is governed by a few basic principles (similarity, proximity, continuation, closure, and simplicity)

130
Q

Similarity

A

We tend to group the dots into columns rather than rows, grouping the dots of similar colour

131
Q

Proximity

A

We tend to perceive groups, linking dots that are close together

132
Q

Continuity

A

We tend to see a continuous green bar rather tthan two similar rectangles, our brain completes it even though obstructed.

133
Q

Closure

A

We tend to perceive an intact triangle, reflecting our bias toward perceiving closed figures rather than incomplete ones.

134
Q

Simplicity

A

We tend to interpret a form in the simplest way possible. Two rectangles rather than a single 12-sided irregular polygon

135
Q

Organization and features

A

perception involves multiple activities going on in parallel: information gathering and interpretation

136
Q

Perceptual constancies

A

we perceive constant object properties (sizes, shapes, etc.) even though sensory information about these attributes changes when viewing circumstances change

137
Q

Types of perceptual constancies

A

brightness constancy
size constancy
shape constancy

138
Q

Unconscious inference

A

human vision is incomplete and that details are inferred by the unconscious mind to create a complete picture.

these are calculated/processes/inferred unconsciously

139
Q

Constancy is partly influenced by…

A

relationships within the retinal image

distance cues

140
Q

illusions

A

solid evidence that perception involves at least some interpretation, because illusions are misinterpretations.

141
Q

depth perception

A

perception of distance depends on various distance cues

142
Q

distance cues

A
  • binocular disparity
  • monocular cues
  • motion cues
143
Q

binocular disparity

A

the difference between each eye’s view of a stimulus

144
Q

monocular cues

A

depth cues that depend only on what each eye sees by itself

145
Q

types of monocular cues

A
  • lens adjustment
  • pictorial cues (interposition)
  • linear perspective
  • texture gradients
  • motion parallax
  • optic flow
146
Q

redundancy

A

different cues may suggest the same thing, but each cue’s importance depends on the circumstance

e.g. binocular disparity is only helpful when distance is short

2H03 (7 decks)

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